Exam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 13 - 23, Chapters 7-10Lecture 13 (October 15)BERGMANN AND ALLEN'S RULESBergmann's Rule - in the same species, organisms tend to be larger in cold climates than in hot climatesPerson who is shorter and wider is better at conserving heat in cold cli-mate than person who is long and narrow Anthro 1031st editionAllen's Rule - organisms living in a hotter environment will have long, narrow appendages and organisms living in colder environments will be more com-pactWHAT IS A PRIMATE?-difficult to define-easier to characterize by tendencies in a suite of characteristics-genetically a distinct group apart from other comparable mammalsCLASSIFICATIONHow do we classify organisms?-Phenogram-Linnaeus said to group things that look alikeEx: Lion grouped with tiger, housecat is next most similar, then squid, then pine coneANATOMICAL VS. GENETIC CLASSIFICATIONHow would a lizard, crocodile, and bird be grouped?Anatomical : Lizard and crocodile grouped together, bird separate (arranged in phenogram)Genetic: Crocodile and bird together (common ancestor), lizard separate (ar-ranged in cladogram)Anatomical - similar adaptationGenetic - relatedness - "phylogeny" (evolutionary history of a species)TAXONOMY (naming)Monophyletic - common ancestor and all descendentsParaphyletic - common ancestor and subset of descendantsPolyphyletic - subset of ancestors; from different cladesPrimates are a monophyletic groupHuman is monophyletic groupChimpanzee, bonobo, and human is monophyletic grouGorilla, chimpanzee, bonobo, and human is monophyletic groupNotice that it meets on the rightmost line and all species above that point are in the monophyletic groupSTREPSIRRHINES-lemurs-loris HAPLORHINES-tarsiers-New World monkeys-Old World monkeys-apesPRIMATESFlexible...-anatomically-behaviorally-ecologicallyPrimates are gnerealized - have not specialized away from the general mam-mal conditionEx: 5 digits (fingers)Other species who are specialized have changed to fit specific needs (horse has one digit ("finger", leg)Lecture 14 (October 20) PRIMATESAnatomically flexible:-5 fingers-4 tooth types - dietary flexibility-flexible skeletons - allow a lot of mobility (from living in trees, you need to be able to move in all directions)Behavioral flexibility:-Locomotion-quadruped (arboreal, terrestrial, knuckle-walking)-leaping/suspensory climbing-bipedalism-Dependence on learning (vs. genetic, instinct)-Have a long developmental period, learn behaviors over time, not born with many instincts like bees who know they are worker bees-Very social-long term social relationships (especially between child and mother)Ecologically flexible:-Diurnal (day), nocturnal (night)-Dietary flexibility: omnivorous, frugivorous, folivorous-Widespread (although usually tropical): live in Africa, Asia, South AmericaPRIMATE SPECIALIZATIONSgrasping hands and feetnails (not claws)visual specialization (vs. other senses)large brainslow reproduction with parental 'investment'Grasping hands and feet:opposable thumbsprecision grip - being able to hold a pencil, gives us better dexteritypower grip - picking up a glass, wrapping hand around an object (baseball)have nerves in fingers that allow us to be sensitive to touchVision versus olfaction (smell):protected eye socketcolor visiondepth perception (eyes close together)Relative brain size:Brain size increases with body massSlow reproduction, Parental investment (especially by mothers)Primates are omnivores but there are dietary specializations within primatesfrugivores - fruit eatersinsectivores - insectsgummivores - tree saps and gumsLECTURE 15 (October 27)BEHAVIORBehavior can increase fitnessBehaviors are learned (can also have a genetic basis)Natural selection (some behaviors favored)Behavior evolves (behavioral phenotype)PRIMATE BEHAVIOR-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-groups highly organized: alliances, ranks, age-mates, kin-complex relationships: more individuals in a group, the more kinds of relationships-relationships are long-lasting-REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIORWhat is the best behavior?Depends on your sexFor females, food is scarce - limits reproductionlactation is energy-demandingFor males, females are scarce - limits reproductionTherefore, lots of competition concerning reproductionFemale vs. female for foodMale vs. male for females (Doesn't mean the winner gets the female, since she has a choice as well)How can a female succeed?Food helps but is limitedCompete with other femalesdominance hierarchies (dominant female gets priority at feeding sites)avoid other females (ex: chimpanzees)Choose "good" malesWho control resources (food)Good genes (peacock's tail) - females choose males who have some-thingex: big and healthy male, shows good immune systemHelpful fathersFemales choose males that show maternal traits, will help protectchildHow can a male succeed?-Females have few offspring - ovulate, pregnancy, lactate, wean - takes a long time before they can have another offspring-Females are "limiting resource"-Its the number of females that a male can mate with that determines his re-productive success - leads to competition between males-Sexual dimorphismUnlike in peacocks who have a phenotypic trait to impress females, males can have phenotypic trait to battle other males (bigger body size, larger canines)Dimorphism index = male mass size divided by female mass sizeIf index number is 1, males and females are the same size-COOPERATIVE BEHAVIORCooperation can increase fitness - chimps hunt togethermales help females raise offspring - cooperative breeding-LEARNED BEHAVIOR-Potato washingEx: monkey saw potato on sandy beach, went to water to wash it off. Fellow monkeys observed her doing this and in a few generations it was a part of the culture. Old monkeys did not do this (old dog, new trick), but young monkeys did.-Tools (used by chimps)make tools for foraginguse spears to stab into trees where nocturnal monkeys are (babies watch parents do this - learned behavior, making spears is not genetic)non-material culture (hand clasp, vocalization)PRIMATE GROUP ORGANIZATION AND MATING SYSTEMS:1. one male - multi female: polygynyone male dominates females. females are fine with this because he is dominant and has territory-all male groups2. one female - multi male: polyandryex: marmosetsmultiple females in the group but one is reproductivewhen twins are born, they could each have a different father3. multimale - multifemale: polygynandry, promiscuityex: baboonsmultiple males and females