BIO 1104 1st EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 25-28Lecture 25 What are the three requirements for natural selection?1.Trait is heritable/can be passed down genetically2. Differential reproduction- individuals with a certain trait reproduce at a greater rate3.Genetic diversity/variationName and define the three main types of biodiversity1.Genetic diversity- between genetic characteristics within a species (i.e. alleles)2.Species diversity- diversity of species in a given area3.Ecosystem diversity- diversity of ecological processes, habitats, and communitiesWhat are some of the challenges to measuring biodiversity?1. It costs money to discover species2. Many species are microscopic and cannot be seen with the human eye3. Because biologists cannot count all species, they must make estimates based off of assumptions, which leaves room for error4. Some habitats are mostly unexplored (such as the bottom of the ocean)- New species are more likely to be found in Asia, Africa, or South America than in the U.S.- It is unknown how many species of insects, plants, etc. there are- There are more known species of insects than any other living thingo Relatively, there are very few known species of mammals - Most scientists estimate that there are 10 million species of animals o They reach this estimate by observing a pattern and extrapolating  Examples of patterns:- Species-area curve: pattern in the relationship between habitat and species number- Patterns among species- Patterns of discovery - The predicted number of species of taxonomic group is always bigger than the number of species described, but the magnitude of that difference may varyo Scientists are able to make more accurate estimates for larger organisms than one-celled organisms such as prokaryotes or protozoaWhat are some of the direct use values (i.e., goods) of biodiversity?1. Food, fuel, medicine, or building materiala. Humans rely on approx. 20 types of plants for food (i.e., rice, wheat, corn)i. More genetic diversity is necessaryb. Plants are a primary source of medicine in 80% of countries What are some of the indirect use values (i.e., services) of biodiversity?2. Climate regulation, pollination, nutrient recycling, or cultural/spiritual/aesthetic reasons3.Indirect use values provide resources and perform functions, making it hard to place a monetary value on them a. Ex. soil, water, and habitat protectionb. Many plants depend on some form of pollinationc. Also provide basis for education and scientific research, such as medical modelsi. Biomimicry- imitation of models in nature to solve human problems1. I.e. Relating hibernating bears and trauma patients What are some of the non-use values of biodiversity?4. Potential/Existence value- it may prove to have value in the future5. Existence value- value of knowing something exists6.Bequest value- value of knowing something will be there for future generationsLecture 26Extinction1. Over 90% of all species that ever lived are extinct a. On average, one species goes extinct every 1,000 yearsb. But this rate is not always constant2. In earth’s history, there have been at least 5 mass extinctionsa. This is a sudden and dramatic loss of biodiversity b. “Mass extinction bar” 9s approximately 75% of speciesc. Recovery requires 10’s of millions of years3.A sixth mass extinction may be caused by humansa. Reasons: pollution, global climate change, overuse of resources, overhunting/harvesting, etc. b. This is the only mass extinction resulting from one concrete causei. It is occurring at a rapid rate, and may negatively affect humansc. There has never been another mass extinction that was caused by 1 species4. The last individual of a species is not usually killed by hunters, habitat loss, or invasive speciesa. Often bad luck What was the book Silent Spring about? It argued against the usage of the pesticide DDT, which thinned the egg shells of the Dustyseaside sparrow and led to the specie’s extinction. (The last remaining 6 individuals were all male)What are some threats that can reduce a species population?Habitat loss, hunting, and invasive speciesWhy are small populations especially vulnerable to extinction?1. They are more effected by random events2. Small populations lead to inbreeding, which can reduce average fitness3. Less genetic diversity leads to limited ability to adaptWhat was the Endangered Species Act?It was passed in 1973 by Nixon, and it gave the federal government the power to protect species from going extinct by giving it broad authority if the species is listed as “endangered”.However, this has led to some debate about whether environmental protection can become excessive- such as in the case of “Logging jobs vs. Owls”.What are some major threats to biodiversity?1. Land use change (i.e., habitat loss and fragmentation)a. i.e. destruction for resources contained in or on land, or destruction for space forinhabiting/making a livingi. destruction can also occur as a byproduct of human behaviors, or because of fragmentation by roads or other human constructions1. fragmentation- breaking a habitat into piecesa. quantity and quality decreases b. creates a barrier that is dangerous to cross b. What are some of the ways that land use change can impact species?i. Leads to a lack of habitat and other resourcesii. Limits geographic range of species; supports fewer organismsiii. Isolates into small populationsiv. Edge effects1. Edge- portion of an ecosystem near a perimeter2. Edge effect- influences of adjacent habitat on edgea. Results in environmental differencei. i.e., more exposed to weather, noise, direct sunlight, chemicals, less air moisture, etc.3. edges have different biological composition that non-edges, which could lead to different predators2. Invasive species3. Overexploitation4. Climate change 5.Pollution could decrease population or lead to mutationLecture 27Definition: introduced/non-native/alien species- any organism that has entered an ecosystem outside of its region of originHow is an invasive species different from the above species?An invasive species are a subset of introduced species. They are also non-native, but its introduction also causes/is likely to cause economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health-can be low impact or high impact, depending on the amount of damage causedWhat steps occur for an invasive species to flourish in a new environment?1. Transport- organisms make it onto the vehicle (either