Chapter 4: How Do We Learn Gender?1. Socialization: a fundamental concept for sociologists in general; defined as the ways in which we learn to become a member of any group2. Gender socialization: the process through which individuals learn the gender norms of their society & come to develop an internal gender identity3. Gender norms: the sets of rules for what is appropriate masculine & feminine behavior in a givenculture4. Gender identity: the way in which being feminine or masculine, a woman or a man, becomes an internalized part of the way we think about ourselves 5. Intersexed: individuals who for a variety of reasons do not fit into the contemporary Anglo-European biological sex categories of male & female6. Genital tubercle: undifferentiated organ in embryos that will develop into a penis or clitoris7. Hermaphrodites: common term for intersexed individuals; comes from the Greek name for a mythical figure formed from the fusion of a man & a woman8. Target of socialization: the person being socialized9. Agents of socialization: the people, groups, & institutions who are doing the socializing10. Social learning theory: developed in psychology from the legacy of behaviorism; we learn through the selective rewarding, withholding of rewards, or punishing of behavior 11. Sex-typed behaviors: a behavior is sex-typed when it is more expected & therefore seen as appropriate when performed by one sex, but less expected & therefore seen as inappropriate when performed by the other sex 12. Identification: where a child copies whole patterns of behavior without necessarily being trained or rewarded for doing so13. Cognitive-development theory: seeks to explain the ways in which children acquire a sense of a gender identity & the ability to gender-type themselves & others14. Gender stability: children know that their gender is permanent, & that is the gender they will be for the rest of their lives15. Gender constancy: brings an understanding that even changing the outward physical appearanceof a person does not change their underlying sex category16. Gender congruency: becoming fully sex-typed & achieve gender socialization17. Gender schema theory: builds on the frameworks of both cognitive development social learningtheory to formulate an explanation that is specific to gender socialization, rather than to socialization as a more general process18. Schema: cognitive structure network of associations that helps to organize an individual’s perception of the world19. Gender schema: cognitive structure that enables us to sort characteristics & behaviors into masculine & feminine categories & then created various other associations with those categories20. Androcentrism: the belief that masculinity & what men do in our culture is superior to femininity& what women do21. Gender polarization: describes the way in which behaviors & attitudes that are viewed as appropriate for men are seen as inappropriate for women vice versa22. Enculturation: how culture comes to reside inside individuals23. Psychoanalytic theory: the importance of women’s status as mothers & uses principles from Freud & others in the psychoanalytic tradition to explain the ways in which gender becomes deeply embedded in the psychic structure of our personalities24. Psychoanalytic identification: the way in which a child modifies her own sense of self in order to incorporate some ability, attribute, or power she sees in others (usually a parent) around them25. Ego boundaries: describes the sense of personal psychological division between ourselves & the world around us26. Primary socialization: the initial process of learning the ways of a society or group that occurs in infancy & childhood & is transmitted through the primary groups to which we belong27. Primary groups: characterized by intimate, enduring, unspecialized relationships among small groups who generally spend a great deal of time together28. One-child policy: a government mandated system in China, that began in 1979, that declares couples are limited to having only one child per family29. Hegemonic masculinity: any activity or behavior that has the potential to be seen as violating gender norms in some way30. Secondary groups: a concept that comes from R.W. Connell’s exploration of how our dominant ideas about what it means to be a man influence the behaviors of actual men in any given society; there is no one male role but rather a variety of masculinities that interact with each other in hierarchical & contested ways31. Secondary groups: generally larger, more temporary, more impersonal, & more specialized than primary groups; tend to be more specialized in that they focus on one or two primary goals, rather than on the unspecialized set of goals32. Secondary socialization: the learning process that takes place each time we join one of these new secondary groups33. Androgenization: adopting some of the qualities of the opposite gender34. Language symmetry: a way in which the strcture & vocabulary of a language reflects & helps to re-create the social inequalities of the culture in which it exists35. Cumulative disadvantage: inequalities that persist between women & men over the whole course of their lives become intensified in old age36. Suttee: a Hindu practice of ritual self-immolation (setting oneself on fire)37. Roleless role: when there are few expectations rules about exactly what widows should do or how they should