PSY 223 1nd EditionExam # 4 Study Guide Lectures: 18 - 22Helping Others1. Distinguish among the following terms: prosocial behavior, altruism, and egoistic helping. Prosocial behavior: voluntary behavior carried out to benefit another person—INTENDED action to benefit othersAltruism: the primary goal is to help another person event if there is a cost to selfEgotistic helping: a form of helping in which the primary goal is to increase own welfare2. The main principle of evolutionary theory is that any behavior that enhances reproductive success will be passed on to later generations. On the face of it, then, it might appear that being helpful to others would not increase one's chances of survival. However, evolutionary theorists have used principles of evolutionary theory to explain why helping occurs. Explain helping from an evolutionary perspective. In particular, explain kin selection and reciprocal altruism, and their links to evolutionary principles.We are concerned about ourselves, but we also want our genes to survive, so more likelyto help biological relatives than those who are not, especially in risky situations or if theycan reproduceKin selection: tendency to help genetic relatives, which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will surviveReciprocal altruism: helping overs increases the chances you will be helped in return andsurvive3. Various norms also affect helping behavior. Distinguish between the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm.Social responsibility norm: you help those who are less well-off than you (younger, disabled, elderly)“Ought” factors—social norms in society that tell us what behaviors we ought to engage in4. Explain the social-exchange perspective to helping behavior. Refer to rewards, costs, andequity in your answer. What is the arousal/cost-reward model of helping?Social exchange—we help others when we can maximize our rewards and minimize the costs—if rewards are great enough and costs low enough then we are willing to helpArousal: cost-reward method—the proposition that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective away to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm5. Imagine that you have run across a homeless person who asks for money. According to the empathy-altruistic hypothesis, what factors are likely to influence how likely you are to help? What is the distinction between helping out of empathic concern (and perspective taking) vs. relief of personal distress?Empathy: ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and experience what theyare experiencingEmpathy-altruism hypothesis: when we feel empathy for someone, we will attempt to help purely for altruistic reasons—we help due to empathetic concernWhen helping because of egotistic reasons, we help because of social rewards and experienced distress—helping declined when it is easy to escape from the situationIf you have an altruistic motivation, help regardless of ease of escape—helping because of empathy6. Explain the complex motives that people have for volunteering (e.g., research by Omoto & Snyder on motivations to help people with AIDS).People who volunteer tend to have multiple motives—some empathic (perspective taking) and some egotistical (build resume)Omoto & Snyder found those who initially endorsed self-oriented motives for volunteering, like gaining understanding and developing personal skills, remained active volunteers longer than those who initially emphasized other-oriented motives, like humanitarian values and community concern. Supports that purely altruistic motives may not keep individuals motivated long enough to withstand personal costs associated with prolonged helping—when helping demands more of us, self-interest keeps us going7. Imagine that you lost your wallet. Where would you be more likely to receive help: in a large city or in a small town? Why the differences? According to Levine et al., what are the most helpful cities?People are more likely ot help in small towns than urban areas because of stimulus overload (less likely to notice an emergency), there is more diversity in urban areas so reduced perceptions of similarity so less likely to help, and diffusion of responsibility because feel anonymous and less accountable.Levin et. al found that Knoxville, TN was the more helping city. They found that cities with greater economic well-being were associated with more helping. Largest cities tended to have worst scores for helping. 8. According to the Good Samaritan study by Darley and Batson, who was more likely to help a confederate slumped in a doorway, coughing and groaning? Did the type of speech matter? Did pressure of time matter?Good Samaritan study found that those who were in a rush were not likely to help, but those who had a lot of time were.Type of speech (random topic or about the Good Samaritan Bible story did not matter—what did matter was how much time they had before they had to give their speech.9. What is the bystander effect? What is the Bystander Intervention Model? What are the 5 steps to the process? Explain how each of the following inhibit the likelihood of receiving help in an emergency situation if there are many witnesses, according to thismodel: a) pluralistic ignorance b) diffusion of responsibility; and c) audience inhibition effect. Be familiar with the general findings from the classic studies that illustrate the Bystander Intervention Model (e.g., the woman in distress study, the smoke study). According to recent meta-analyses, is the effect weaker in some situations? Does the bystander effect occur on-line? Is it more or less likely to occur when the audience is a group of friends vs. a group of strangers?Bystander effect: presence of others inhibits helpingBystander Intervention Model 5 Steps:1. Noticing—must notice situation because sometimes when so many people we may not notice emergency2. Interpreting—interpret if it’s an emergency3. Taking responsibility—even if you think it is an emergency you may not take action because you think someone else will4. Deciding to help5. Providing helpPluralistic ignorance: happens during interpretation stage—if no one else looks alarmed and no one is taking action, we think it must not be an emergencyDiffusion of responsibility: assume others will take responsibilityAudience inhibition effect: worry about how others will view your helpingThe less people