Chapter NineOutlineGoalsGoals Contd.9.1 Mixtures and SolutionsSlide 69.2 The Solution ProcessSlide 89.3 Solid HydratesSlide 109.4 Solubility9.5 The Effect of Temperature on SolubilitySlide 139.6 The Effect of Pressure on Solubility: Henry’s Law9.7 Units of ConcentrationSlide 16Slide 17Slide 189.8 DilutionSlide 209.9 Ions in Solution: Electrolytes9.10 Electrolytes in Body Fluids: Equivalents and MilliequivalentsSlide 239.11 Properties of SolutionsSlide 25Slide 26Slide 279.12 Osmosis and Osmotic PressureSlide 29Slide 30Slide 319.13 DialysisSlide 33Chapter SummaryChapter Summary Contd.Slide 36Slide 37Key WordsKey Words Contd.Slide 40Chapter NineSolutionsFundamentals of General, Organic and Biological Chemistry 6th EditionJames E. MayhughCopyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine2Outline►9.1 Mixtures and Solutions►9.2 The Solution Process►9.3 Solid Hydrates►9.4 Solubility►9.5 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility►9.6 The Effect of Pressure on Solubility: Henry’s Law►9.7 Units of Concentration►9.8 Dilution►9.9 Ions in Solution: Electrolytes►9.10 Electrolytes in Body Fluids: Equivalents and Milliequivalents►9.11 Properties of Solutions►9.12 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure►9.13 DialysisCopyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine3Goals►1. What are solutions, and what factors affect solubility? Be able to define the different kinds of mixtures and explain the influence on solubility of solvent and solute structure, temperature, and pressure.►2. How is the concentration of a solution expressed? Be able to define, use, and convert between the most common ways of expressing solution concentrations.►3. How are dilutions carried out? Be able to calculate the concentration of a solution prepared by dilution and explain how to make a desired dilution.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine4Goals Contd.►4. What is an electrolyte? Be able to recognize strong and weak electrolytes and nonelectrolytes, and express electrolyte concentrations.►5. How do solutions differ from pure solvents in their behavior? Be able to explain vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression for solutions.►6. What is osmosis? Be able to describe osmosis and some of its applications.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine59.1 Mixtures and Solutions ►Heterogeneous mixture: A nonuniform mixture that has regions of different composition.►Homogeneous mixture: A uniform mixture that has the same composition throughout.►Solution A homogeneous mixture that contains particles the size of a typical ion or small molecule.►Colloid A homogeneous mixture that contains particles in the range 2–500 nm diameter.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine6Liquid solutions, colloids, and heterogeneous mixtures can be distinguished in several ways.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine79.2 The Solution ProcessA good rule of thumb for predicting solubility is that “like dissolves like”. Substances with similar intermolecular forces form solutions and substances with different intermolecular forces do not.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine8Dissolution of an NaCl crystal in water. Polar water molecules surround individual ions pulling them from the crystal surface into solution. Oxygen atoms point to (+) ions and hydrogen atoms point to (-) ions.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine99.3 Solid Hydrates►Some ionic compounds attract water strongly enough to hold onto water molecules even when crystalline, forming what are called solid hydrates. ►Plaster of Paris, CaSO4·1/2H2O, is a solid hydrate. The formula indicates that for every 2 formula units of calcium sulfate in the crystal there is also one water.►Still other ionic compounds attract water so strongly that they pull water vapor from humid air to become hydrated. Compounds that show this behavior, such as calcium chloride are called hygroscopic and are often used as drying agents.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine10Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine119.4 Solubility►Hydrogen bonding between water and ethanol, between water alone, and ethanol alone is so similar that the two liquids are miscible, or mutually soluble in all proportions. ►Most substances reach the limit of a saturated solution: A solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at equilibrium.►Solubility: The maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine129.5 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility►Temperature often has a dramatic effect on solubility. ►The effect of temperature is different for every substance, however, and is usually unpredictable.►Solids that are more soluble at high temperature than at low temperature can sometimes form what are called supersaturated solutions, which contain even more solute than a saturated solution.►Such a solution is unstable and precipitation can occur dramatically when a tiny seed crystal is added.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine13►Solubility of some (a) solids and (b) gases, in water as a function of temperature.►Most solid substances become more soluble as temperature rises.►The solubility of gases decreases as temperature rises.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine149.6 The Effect of Pressure on Solubility: Henry’s LawHenry’s law: The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to its partial pressure. If T is constant, C  Pgas , or C/Pgas = k , or C1/P1 = C2/P2 .Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine159.7 Units of ConcentrationMolarity (M) =Moles of soluteLiters of solution►Solute: A substance dissolved in a liquid.►Solvent: The liquid in which a substance is dissolved.►Solution: The combination of solute and solvent.►A very useful means of expressing concentration in the laboratory is molarity (M), the number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution.Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter Nine16►Weight/Volume Percent Concentration [(w/v)%]►Mathematically, (w/v)% concentration is found by taking the number of grams of solute per milliliters of solution and multiplying by 100.►Volume/Volume Percent Concentration [(v/v)%]►Mathematically (v/v)% is determined