Need for Psychological Science:The “grandmother test”Potential problems relying on the intuition and common senseHindsight BiasOverconfidencePerception of patterns in random eventsHindsight Bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.We should be predicting rather then explainingSometimes intuition is wrongOverconfidence: We think we know more then we do.Danger when studying for an exam under this assumptionWhen shown that they aren’t accurate, participants explain away the resultsPerceiving order in random eventsThe Scientific Attitude:3 main components1. Curiosity- Willingness to go against the norm2. Skepticism3. Humility: awareness of vulnerability to error and openness to new perspectives.Let the data/information guide you“The rat is always right”Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusionsExamine assumptionsDiscern hidden valuesEvaluate evidenceAssess conclusionsAsking and Answering Psychological Questions:The Scientific MethodTheory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or eventsHypothesis: testable predictionsAllow us to show support for, revise, or reject a theoryBe careful of conformation biasOperational definitions: a statement of the procedures used to define research variablesReplicate…and expandThe scientific MethodUse your theory and observations to define the questionFor a hypothesisTest the hypothesis (use appropriate experimental controls)Draw a conclusion about the hypothesisObserving and Describing BehaviorCase Study: an in depth study of one individual conducted in hopes of revealing universal principlesSurvey: method of obtaining self-report data from a particular groupPopulation all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawnRandom Sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusionNaturalistic Observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situationOvert observationCovert observationParticipant observerNon-participant observerCorrelation: measure of the extent to which two factors vary togetherDirectionPositive- when one variable increases so does the otherNegative- when one variable increases, the other decreasesStrength: the closer the absolute value of the correlation is to 1, the stronger the relationshipIllusory correlation: the perception of a relationship where none exists.Experimentation: investigator manipulates one of more factors (Independent variable) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable)Must hold constant (control) other factors that you aren’t interested inIt’s all about the BrainBiological psychology: concerned with links between biology and behaviorSleep and dreamsBiological causes of psychological disordersDrives (sex, thirst, hunger)Biopsychosocial ModelBiologyIndividual psychologySocial influencesNeural CommunicationNeuronsDendrites: receives messages from other cellsCell body: support center- SomeAxon: passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, glandsNeural impulse: action potentials/ electrical signal traveling down the neuronMyelin sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps spread neural impulseTerminal branches of axon: form junctions with other cellsTypes of Neurons:Sensory neurons: (input neurons) touch, sight, hearing, smell, sightMotor neurons: (output neurons) connected to muscles, bones, glandsInterneurons: signals between other neuronsAction potential: electrical charge; travels down axonTransduction: transforming energy from one form to anotherNeuron stimulation causes a brief change in electrical charge. If strong enough, then it produces depolatrixation and action potential.Meanwhile there is a sodium potassium pump which transports sodium ions out of the cellAs an action potential continues, the 1st section is rechargedHow neurons communicate:Neurotransmitters: chemicals that relay info from one neuron to the next1. Electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neurons axon until reaching a tiny junction known as the synapse2. When an action potential releases an axon terminal it stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules. These molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. This allows electrically charged atoms to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action potential.3. The sending neuron normally reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules, a process called reuptakerefractory period: neuron incapable of firing. This period of time occurs right after it just fired/ reuptake process could/ could take 100-150 milliseconds to reloadInfluenceEndorphins: linked to pain control and pleasure.Effects of drugs and other chemicalsNervous SystemNerves: bundles of axons that form “cables” and connect the CNS with muscles, glans and sense organsCentral nervous system:Spinal chord- connects PNS to the brainReflexes automatic responses to stimuliNo brain involvementEndocrine system:“slow” chemical communication systemglands secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which then effect other tissuesadrenal glandsepinephrine (adrenaline)norepinephrine (noradrenaline)increases heart rate. Blood pressure and blood sugarpituitary gland:controlled by hypothalamusinfluences growth and release of other hormonesThe Brain:Older brain structuresBrainstem: oldest and innermost brain region; crossover pointCerebellum: nonverbal learning and memory; time judgment, emotion regulation, sound and texture discrimination; voluntary movementLimbic System:Cerebral cortexCerebrum: 2 large hemispheres that make up 85% of brain’s weightCerebral cortex: interconnected neural c ells; control and information- processing centerStructure:20-23 billion synaptic connections300 trillion synaptic connectionsglial cells: support, nourish, and protect neuronsfissures: prominent folds that separate the different lobesparietal lobe: touch, sensations, vision, attentionfrontal lobe: language. Though, memory, and motor functioningtemporal lobe: language, memory, hearing, form perceptionoccipital lobe: visual processingFunctionAssociation areas: areas involved in higher mental functioning (ex. Learning, remembering, thinking, speaking.)Plasticity: the brains ability to