Lecture 2 PSYCH 250 1st EditionOutline of Last Lecture I. Science of Human DevelopmentA. What exactly is psychology in relation to the developing person?B. Continuity vs. Discontinuity II. Five Characteristics of DevelopmentIII. Human Development as a ScienceOutline of Current Lecture IV. Understanding TheoriesV. Grand TheoriesA. Psychoanalytic TheoryB. BehaviorismC. Cognitive TheoryVI. Emergent TheoriesA. Sociocultural TheoryB. Universal Perspective: Evolutionary TheoryC. Ecological Systems TheoryVII. What Theories ContributeCurrent LectureTheories of Human Development: A Crash CourseIn order to understand psychology, one must understand the many theories that researchers have tested and retested in order to better understand the human mind.A theory is: a systematic set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. Theories provide hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance.There are two different types of theories: Grand Theories and Emergent TheoriesThe Grand Theories are: Psychoanalytic, Behaviorism, and Cognitive TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory: This theory was developed largely by Sigmund Freud and states that behavior is motivated by unconscious drives. Dreams were reflective of the unconscious mind, and the primary driving force of behavior was sexuality (something that was not talked about during his time). Freud believed that early childhood experiences were key to the development of a later adult.New stages do not occur in the adult years, rather, personalities and habits were influenced by earlier stages.According to Freud, there were three components to personality: Id, Ego, and SuperegoThe Id - The Id is the unconscious – present at birth- Guided by the “Pleasure Principle” (What you want to do)The Ego - Conscious, rational part of mind (reality check) - Emerges in early infancy- Source of Impulse Control (What you actually do)The Superego - Social-moral component (the conscience – What you Should Do)- Develops from parent-child interactions (age 3-6)The id is dominant in infancy and the superego develops during early childhood (phallic stage), and by adulthood a strong ego is able to defend itself against strong attack from the id and superego (Berger). This defense mechanism keeps the id and superego under control. Other defense mechanisms identified by Freud are: rationalization and sublimation.Regarding developmental stages, Freud believed there were five. All five stages occur between infancy and adolescence, and are referred to as Psychosexual Stages (namely because children derive erotic pleasure from whatever body part is central to each stage). Each psychosexual contains a potential problem or conflict, and it is how the individual copes and resolves that conflicts that will determine their personality and how they will behave later in life. Ex: too strict toilet-training may create an “anal” personality.These stages are Oral, Anal, and Phallic (occurring within the first 6 years of life), and Latency, and Genital (following early childhood). Oral: In infancy the erotic body part where pleasure is derived is the mouth (babies are always eating, and they place everything in their mouths)Anal: During early childhood pleasure comes from releasing waste via the anusPhallic: This stage most often occurs in the preschool years. Children discover their genitals, and the penis is a source of pride for boys, and envy for girls. Latency: Elementary years, there seems to be no activity with the libido (sex drive), however the body is preparing for the final stage.Genital: The genital stage arrives at puberty and continues throughout adulthood.Erik Erikson was another psychologist who believed in the prospects of psychoanalytic theory. He had his roots stemming from Freud’s works but believed in a Lifespan Perspective rather than early childhood experiences.Erikson created a Theory of Psychosocial Development that focused on the impact of relationships to shape development. This theory is composed of 8 psychosocial stages characterized by a developmental crisis (goal that must be met in order for success in the next stage of life)Trust vs. Mistrust InfancyAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Early ChildhoodInitiative vs. Guilt Play YearsIndustry vs. Inferiority Middle ChildhoodIdentity vs. Role Confusion AdolescenceIntimacy vs. Isolation Early AdulthoodGenerativity vs. Stagnation Middle AdulthoodIntegrity vs. Despair Late AdulthoodBehaviorism: arose in opposition to psychoanalytic theory. James Watson argued that is psychology was to be a true science, then psychologists should examine only what was visible and measurable, not irrational thoughts and “hidden” urges (Berger). Behaviorism is also called Learning Theory because it describes how individuals learn and develop habits (Berger).There are three components to the science of Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Social Learning Theory.Classical Conditioning: Behavior is learned by association (i.e. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus).Example: Ivan Pavlov taught his dogs to salivate whenever they heard a bell. First, Pavlov paired the bell (neutral stimulus) with food (meaningful stimulus). Every time food was presented, the bell would ring. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate (conditioned response) whenever they heard the bell (now the conditioned stimulus) even when food was not present. Operant Conditioning: Behavior is learned through a system of punishment and reinforcements. Operant Conditioning was largely developed by B.F. Skinner.Reinforcements are consequences that increase the likelihood that a particular action will be repeated.Punishments are consequences that decrease the likelihood that a particular action will be repeated.Social Learning Theory: States that behavior is learned through observation and imitation (modeling). This theory was developed by Albert Bandura who conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment to assess the effects that violent adult behavior had young children. Bandura’s theory states that we model or imitate people we admire.Self-efficacy: the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter their social context. People develop this sense of self-efficacy when they observe other people solve problems successfully which teaches them to strive for notable aspirations (Berger).The Third of the Grand Theories