Lecture 1 PSYCH 250 1st EditionOutline of Current Lecture II. Science of Human DevelopmentA. What exactly is psychology in relation to the developing person?B. Continuity vs. Discontinuity III. Five Characteristics of DevelopmentIV. Human Development as a ScienceCurrent Lecture Introduction the Study of Human DevelopmentTo begin, the study of Human Development seeks to explain how and why people change over time. Developmental Psychology is a science, studies all kinds of people, and studies changes in lifestyles and behaviors over time.When looking at these changes in individuals it is important to consider continuity and discontinuity. Continuity is the changes that remain stable over time: biological sex, eye color, skin tone, temperament. Discontinuity refers to characteristics that unlike those that came before (e.g. speaking a new language, quitting or becoming addicted to a drug).There are five characteristics of development. These characteristics are: Multidirectional, Multicontextual, Multicultural, Multidisciplinary, and Plasticity, and are collectively called the “Life-Span Perspective.”Multidirectional: This characteristic focuses on continuity and discontinuity among individuals. This perspective allows researchers to study how gains and losses produce seemingly unexpected advances and retreats. Multicontextual: There are many different contexts to be considered in the development of a person, from tangible physical surroundings to family dynamics. The three contexts discussed in lecture are: Historical, Socioeconomic Status, and Cultural.Historical: Cohorts are all the persons born within a few years of each other (baby boomers)Socioeconomic Status: Schools, nutrition, and parental income all influence development.Cultural: Values, beliefs, technologies, customs, and behavior influence development and create the variations among racial and ethnic groups.Mirror Neurons: Cells in an observer’s brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had performed the action (Berger).Multidisciplinary: Developmental psychology cannot be studied and researched without multiple disciplines (e.g. Biology, Physiology, Anthropology, Education, Neuroscience, and Economics). Each of these disciplines is essential to understanding psychology.Plasticity: Plasticity refers to the possibility of change. In order to remain functional and resilient, learning must be plastic. Human traits can be molded (like plastic) yet, people maintain a sense of durability, and identity (the way plastic also does). Some aspects of development have the capacity to change and others do not. Plasticity does not mean that anything is possible, just that change may occur, for better or worse (Berger).Developmental psychology is a science, and therefore can be used with the scientific method to seek out specific evidence to answer a question.When conducting a psychological experiment, there are a variety of research methods that a psychologist could use.Scientific Observation: requires the researcher to record the behavior objectively. These observations could occur in a naturalistic setting: a home, school, etc. Where people behave as they normally do or observation could occur in a scientific setting: laboratory, where scientists can document how an individual responds to a given situation. Cause and effect CAN NOT be concluded here because the study is based off of observation. Conclusions will be based on CORRELATION.Experiment: Experiments are highly controlled and are conducted to show a cause and effect. Here, there is a control group (no special treatment) and an experimental group (special treatment). The special treatment that the experimental group receives is the independent variable, and the dependent variable is the factor which is subject to change.Experimental Group -> Special Treatment (Ind. Var.) -> Significant change in dep. var.Control Group -> No Special Treatment -> No change in dep. var.The Survey: The survey method asks a group of individuals many questions pertaining to a specific subject, such as drug use among ethnicities. The survey is a way to attain quick and direct data, but may not include in-depth answers, and has the potential to be biased. The Case Study: Case studies are in-depth studies of one individual. They are good starting points for further, broader research, but do not allow the research to be general across populations.When studying developmental stages over time, there are three methods that researchers use to document and trace events: Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential. Cross-Sectional: This is most convenient, quickest, and least expensive to study developmental change over time ( Berger). This study focuses on different groups of people, at different ages, at the same point in time. While this method is least expensive and time-efficient, it cannot show the change in development over time.Longitudinal: In a longitudinal study data is collected on the same individuals over time. This way, researchers can document significant changes and milestones throughout development. This study is limited by the fact that it is very expensive, and has the risks of client death or drop-out.Cross-Sequential: This method combines both the Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal methods. Several groups of people are studied and then followed longitudinally. While this is the most accurate way of collecting data, itis very expensive and therefore very limited. When conducting any study a researcher must choose between a Correlation Design or an Experiment DesignIn a correlation design data are collected without altering a participant’s experiences (such as observation as mentioned earlier). Because a highly controlled experiment has not been conducted, a cause and effect relationship cannot be generalized.For example: Media violence has been correlated to aggressive behavior in children and teens, but is not the sole cause. (Correlation does not mean Causation)In an experimental design, one variable is manipulated to determine how it affects other variables. This designis specific to the scientific method and a cause and effect relationship can be established.Using the same example of media violence: the researcher would formulate a hypothesis: “Watching violent media increases aggressive behavior,” and would then test his hypothesis using control and experimental groups. (These