Nuclear ReactionsThornton and Rex, Ch. 13Reaction KinematicsConsider a general reaction, A (x , y) B or A + x Æ y + Bwith target A at rest.Ex. 9Be4 + 4a2 Æ 1n0 + 12C6or equivalently,9Be4 (a,n) 12C6Conservation of energy gives:MAc2 + mxc2 + Kx = myc2 + Ky + MBc2 + KBThe difference between final and initialkinetic energies is called the Q-value.Q = Ky + KB - Kx = MAc2 + mxc2 - (myc2 + MBc2 )If Energy is released, Q > 0fi ExothermicIf Energy is converted to mass, Q < 0fi EndothermicTwo of the most important exothermicreactions are Fission and Fusion.Neutron ActivationNeutrons - uncharged, can penetrate closeto the nucleus, can induce reactions(Neutron Activation).1930’s - Enrico Fermi bombarded elementsfrom Hydrogen to Uranium withneutrons. On Uranium, Fermi wasunable to identify the final products ofthe reactions. He expected elementsheavier than Uranium, such as in theexpected process:238U92 + 1n0 Æ 239U92 Æ 239Np93 + 0e-1 + nOtto Hahn and the chemist FritzStrassmann eventually identified oneof the product nuclei as Barium(141Ba56), an element much lighter thanUranium.1938 - Meitner and Frisch gave aninterpretation of the reaction andcoined the term Nuclear Fission.They used a model (due to Bohr andothers) in which the nucleus acts like aliquid drop with surface tension.FissionnUUUBaKrnnnComments on Fission• The observed reaction is one of manypossible reactions:235U92 + 1n0 Æ 141Ba56 + 92Kr36 + 3 1n0•235U92 undergoes fission. 238U92 doesnot. Uranium ore contains 99.3% U-238and only 0.7% U-235.• Fission occurs more easily if theneutron is slow (allowing more time for thereaction to occur.)• Q > 0, so energy released (~200 MeV).(Cf. Binding Energy vs. Atomic Weight)• Since heavier nuclei are more neutronrich, the fission process results in therelease of extra neutrons.(Cf. plot of N vs. Z)• Under the right conditions, the extraneutrons could cause more U-235 tofission. This would release even moreneutrons, etc., resulting in achain reaction.(The idea of chain reaction was patentedby Leo Szilard in 1933, before he had anyidea what nuclei might participate!)nUUUUUUUUUUUUUTwo technical problems that had to besolved in order to achieve a chainreaction in Uranium:1) Fission occurs if U-235 captures a slowneutron, but the neutrons emitted infission are fast.The device must contain a substancewhich slows the neutrons down. A“moderator” is an element whose nucleidon’t absorb neutrons and which arerelatively light so that in collisions withneutrons they will absorb energy andthus slow the neutrons down. Typicalmoderators are water, heavy water(D2O), or Carbon (graphite).2) The sample must be enriched withenough U-235 relative to U-238.An additional technical problem must beovercome to achieve controlled nuclearfission, as for power generation.A variable amount of an additionalmaterial that is highly efficient incapturing neutrons must be inserted inthe Uranium. => Cadmium rodsThe first self-sustaining nuclear reactor,using graphite as moderator, was builtunder the stands of the football stadiumat the University of Chicago by EnricoFermi on December 2, 1942.FusionCombining smaller nuclei up to Feincreases stability, and releases energy.Also note sharp peak at 4He.(Cf. Binding Energy vs. Atomic Weight)fi Source of energy in the sun.The predominant process is the pp chain:1)1H + 1H Æ 2H + e+ + n2)2H + 1H Æ 3He + g3)3He + 3He Æ 4He + 1H + 1H4) e+ + e- Æ g + g• Net result is conversion of 4 protonsand 2 electrons into a 4He nucleus andQ=26.7 MeV of energy.(reactions 1,2, and 4 occur twice)• Most of the energy is in KE ofproducts and in the energy of thephotons, and a small amount in theneutrino.• Photons take millions of years toescape the center of the sun, theneutrino escapes immediately.• The slowest reaction in the chain isstep 1, which keeps the sun burning fora long time (~10 billion years).After that it will collapse further,heat up and begin to build heavierelements, up to Fe.• All elements on earth (up to Fe) wereoriginally built in earlier generations ofstars.• There are other chains, including theCNO cycle, which uses Carbon tocatalyse Fusion. It is more importantin massive stars.Fusion on earthA hope for virtually unlimited source ofclean energy in Fusion reactions, such as: 2H + 3H Æ 4He + 1nwhich releases 17.6 MeV of energy.The difficulty of controlled fusion is thelarge energies required by the nuclei toovercome the Coulomb force and react.The main effort has been to use a hotionized gas called a plasma. The nuclei arekept at high energy and compressedtogether by large electric and magneticfields. The magnets are usually in theform of a toroid (donut), called aTokamak.At present no reactor has yet producedmore energy from fusion than wasrequired to produce and contain theplasma.Another scheme is to use powerful lasersto irradiate tiny pellets of deuterium (2H)and tritium (3H) from all sides, resulting intheir vaporization and compression, againproducing fusion.Estimates for commercial exploitation offusion reactors range from 30 to 50years.AcceleratorsOther nuclear reactions are studied bycollisions of fast moving particles on anuclear target.Accelerators use electric and magneticfields to give energy to the chargedparticles.One type of accelerator is the cyclotron,which is used at the NationalSuperconducting Cyclotron Laboratory(NSCL) here at MSU. Giant magnetscontain the ion beams in circles, whileelectric fields are applied in phase toaccelerate the beam.NSCL coupled cyclotron• Ions stripped from heavy nuclei• K500 accelerates up to 20MeV/nucleon (B=3-5 T)• Carbon foil strips more ions (2.5 xcharge)• K1200 accelerates up to 200MeV/nucleon• Beam hits metal target, makingunstable isotopes• A1900 fragment separator selectsparticular isotopes• Isotopes hit target and are studied invarious detectors.• Properties of unstable isotopes arestudied. What is origin of elementsbeyond Iron? (thought to be made insupernova explosion through neutroncapture processes).• General properties of nuclei, such as:Compound Nucleus:(excited nuclear resonance in reaction)p + 15N Æ 16O* Æ p +