Human Physiology Study Questions 4 Designing a digestive tract Digestion absorption and beyond Regulation of digestive motility and secretions Regulating blood levels 1 Discuss the digestive tract from a design perspective Specifically answer the following questions a Where are the voluntary sphincters and why does their location make sense b Where are the involuntary sphincters and why does their location make sense Note For a b eight sphincters in total c Where are the salivary glands what do they secrete and why does their location make sense d Explain the arrangement of smooth muscle within the digestive tract e Why a stomach f Why secrete hydrogen ions into the stomach Why do chloride ions accompany the hydrogen ions g Why is the stomach not an absorptive area h Explain the location of the pancreas liver and gall bladder What do each of these secrete i Why does the pancreas secret bicarbonate j Explain how the small intestine increases its absorptive area k Why is the large intestine so large Note I did not come up with a good answer to this question in class 2 Trace how dietary carbohydrates could end up as glucose molecules traveling throughout your body Note Be sure to include how these carbohydrates are digested where the digestion occurs how and where absorption occurs and what if anything happens in the liver 3 Understand the basic scheme by which dietary protein could end up as amino acids or glucose molecules traveling throughout your body Why does it make sense that there are more types of digestive enzymes and permeases involved in the digestion and absorption of proteins in comparison to carbohydrates 4 Trace the pathway by which dietary fatty acids could end up stored in adipose cells as triglycerides Make sure you include discussion of why dietary sugars must be present for such storage to occur Next trace the pathway by which dietary carbohydrates can end up stored as triglycerides in adipose cells Finally trace the path by which dietary cholesterol or cholesterol synthesized in the liver is delivered to other body tissues Why is a cholesterol source for body tissues important 5 Explain the usefulness of the hepatic portal system To do so first list the three potential problems associated with absorbing materials from the small intestines into the blood after a meal Next explain how the combination of the hepatic portal system in combination with the metabolic abilities of hepatic cells helps contend with each of these problems 6 If the enteric nervous system can orchestrate motility and secretion on its own why are parasympathetic connections especially through the vagus nerve important Note the vagus nerve carries both sensory neurons and efferent preglanglionic neurons 7 Explain what role that the enteric nervous system vagus nerve gastrin CCK and secretin play in regulating a the release of HCL b the release of bicarbonate c the control of stomach emptying d the release of bile e the release of pancreatic enzymes 8 The endocrine cells called S cells that release secretin into circulation are not clumped together to form an endocrine gland but instead are spread out a cell here and there along the first part of the part of the small intestine throughout the duodenum and extending into the first part of the jejunum Provide an explanation as why this spread out arrangement is functionally superior to all the S cells being clumped together at one point along the small intestine 9 Your body attempts to maintain fairly constant blood sugar levels even though your ingestion of carbohydrates or other molecules that can be converted into glucose occurs periodically Why is doing so important Know the various avenues by which your pancreas and your hypothalamus act to maintain constant blood glucose levels if you were to progress from just having a meal to extended starvation 10 Given that fats are more efficient to store than sugars speculate as to why the brain does not more readily use ketone bodies instead of glucose Further speculate as to why brains more readily switch to ketone bodies under complete starvation than under semi starvation energy inputs less than energy use Besides increasing energy use explain how exercise may play an important role in weight loss 11 Given what you know about the effects of glucagon epinephrine and cortisol provide a plausible scenario for their synergistic effects on blood glucose levels shown in Figure 7 17 12 As a good review for many aspects of this class work through the flow chart of physiological screw ups pathophysiology associated with the absence of insulin production insulin dependent diabetes mellitus Figure 2117 13 Your body also attempts to maintain fairly constant blood calcium levels Why is doing so important Where is the main monitor for too low blood calcium levels How does your body react to blood calcium levels being too low Note Discuss both the hormone released and its effects One of the effects of parathyroid hormone is to decrease kidney reabsorption of phosphate Provide an explanation as to why this may make sense Thinking like a parasite 1 First finish the following statement and then explain it It only makes sense for a parasite to harm its host if 2 Compare two different strategies with dealing with some parasite that causes serious human health problems 1 attempting to get rid of the parasite and 2 attempting to domesticate the parasite Mechanisms of innate immunity 1 The simplest means to defend against potential invaders is to prevent them from getting in What are some means that humans and other multicellular animals attempt to prevent certain bacteria types or other types of potential parasites from entering 2 Once a parasite has entered a body to defend against it a host must be able to recognize it and then either control its population size at acceptable levels or remove it completely Explain how your general sometime called innate defense system attempts to accomplish these tasks As you do so be sure you address each of the following questions a How are different types of phagocytic cells positioned within the body How does this pattern make sense b How is a local inflammatory response triggered What are some of the basic features of a local inflammatory response c What is a complement cascade d Explain how aspects of the complement system work with phagocytic cells to rid invaders e Explain why it would make sense for a local infection to lead to body wide response such as increased body