CHAPTER 13 (GOODWIN) – PSYCHOLOGY’S PRACTITIONERS Dr. Nancy AlvaradoResearchers vs Practitioners  Prior to WWII, academic psychology dominated the APA but that gradually changed.  First, clinical psychologists formed other organizations.  The balance shifted in 1962 when those in nonacademic (clinical) jobs outnumbered academics.  The APA was restructured in 1982 to include divisions to restore the status of experimental psychology.  Experimental psychologists formed the Psychonomic Society and later, the APS.  The split represents different values & interests.The Limited Role of Psychologists  Before the war, psychologists worked under psychiatrists (who had medical training) and were limited to administering tests.  There was little formal training except on-the-job.  During the war psychologists began provided therapeutic services because the need was so great.  The govt funded training of clinical psychologists.  Psychologists were recognized as expert diagnosticians and therapists, no longer restricted to a clinic setting or supervised by a psychiatrist.The Boulder Model  David Shakow headed the APA’s Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology (CTCP) in 1947.  71 professionals met at the Univ. of Colorado in Boulder to create a blueprint for training.  3 forms of expertise were needed:  Diagnosis – training in assessment was provided.  Therapy – a year-long internship was required.  Empirical research – a dissertation was required.  This “scientist-practitioner” approach was known as the Boulder ModelThe Eysenck Study  In 1952, Hans Eysenck published “The Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation” suggesting that traditional psychotherapy was ineffective.  He compared 5 psychoanalytic studies and 14 eclectic therapies with a control group of 2 studies of “neurotics” without treatment (from insurance records).  Improvement was 72% for controls compared to 44% for psychoanalysis and 64% for the eclectic therapies.  The methods were flawed but the study damaged the reputation of psychotherapy in the 50’s & 60’s.Behavior Therapy  Behaviorists challenged psychoanalytic approaches by developing alternative therapies applying the results of their studies.  Hobart & Mowrer developed a treatment for bed-wetting involving a bell ringing when a sheet was wet, attacking deep-seated psychoanalytic explanations.  Eysenck developed “behavior therapy” & a journal.  Wolpe developed systematic desensitization, a behavior modification technique to treat phobias (irrational fears) based on learning theory.Systematic Desensitization  He applied Mary Cover Jones’s approach of pairing a fear response with a pleasure response (counter-conditioning).  Cats were shocked when they approached food, then the fear response was replaced with food in rooms gradually changed to resemble the original room.  He used progressive relaxation to replace food when working with humans.  People develop an anxiety hierarchy then pair an imagined scene with relaxation until anxiety fades.Other Behavioral Approaches  Token economies -- Skinner  Cognitive-behavior therapy  Ellis – rational emotive therapy  Beck – treatment for depression based on Seligman’s Learned Helplessness  Behavior modification – based on analysis of behavior and changing rewards.Humanistic Psychology  Humanistic psychology rejected psychoanalysis and behaviorism.  Human behavior cannot be reduced to repressed biological instincts (Freud) or simple conditioning.  The past does not inevitably limit the future.  People are characterized by free will, a sense of responsibility and purpose, and a search for meaning in one’s life.  There is an innate tendency toward growth called self-actualizationTwo Important Humanists Abraham Maslow Carl RogersAbraham Maslow  Maslow trained as an experimental psychologist studying dominance behavior in primates.  He was hired as faculty at Brooklyn College then moved to Brandeis University in 1951.  He focused on the nature of psychological health not disorders, examining the lives of self-actualized people (e.g., Ruth Benedict, Max Wertheimer).  He said self-actualizers see reality accurately, are independent and creative, have a strong moral code and see their work as more than a job.Carl Rogers  After a very strict Protestant upbringing, Rogers studied theology at Union Seminary but switched to Columbia Teacher’s College and psychology.  Leta Hollingsworth encouraged his interest in child guidance.  He disliked psychoanalysis during his training.  He spent 12 years as staff psychologist at a child guidance clinic in Rochester NY, developing his own therapeutic approach.Rogers in Academia  In 1940 Rogers was hired at Ohio State University where he wrote “Counseling & Psychotherapy” in 1942. Then he moved to the Univ. of Chicago.  He was elected president of the APA in 1946 signaling the shift from research to clinical psychology.  After 12 years in Chicago, he moved to the Univ. of Wisconsin, where his work was attacked.  In 1961 he moved to California, originally at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, then he founded the Center for the Study of the Person.Client-Centered Therapy  Rogers rejected the need to delve into the client’s past but instead focused on creating a therapeutic relationship supporting growth.  The therapist must be honest with the client.  The therapist must be unconditionally accepting of the client’s worth (by virtue of being a human being).  The therapist must have empathy (understanding of the client’s viewpoint) modeled using reflective listening.  Rogers conducted research to test the effectiveness of his approach. The approach was popular.The Vail Conference  The Boulder Model had difficulties:  Practitioners outside academia found little use for their research skills and felt they had insufficient clinical training.  Grad students weren’t getting good clinical training because academics had no time for practice.  Crane proposed a new degree – Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), emphasizing clinical training.  The Vail Conference (1973) set standards for new programs, legitimizing the degree.Recent Changes in the Field  Clinical psychology has gained respect and distinguished itself from psychiatry.  After legal battles, clinical