Leadership: Barriers & StylesThe Glass CeilingThe NumbersFortune Magazine 1995 Survey Results from Male & Female Middle & Top ManagersSlide 5By not using all the potential of female employees, organizations lose in 2 ways.A 1991 Bipartisan Federal Glass Ceiling Commission recommended that CEOsSlide 8Leadership Theories (discussed in article by Appelbaum, Audet, & Miller)Biology is Destiny TheoriesGender Role TheoriesThe Feminine/Competency BindFurthermore, the same behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than a female.Theories About Factors That Potentially Undermine Women’s Leadership EffectivenessSlide 15Slide 16Slide 17The style of leadership traditionally used by men is Command and Control. A style of leadership that has often been used by women is an Interactive Leadership Style.The Interactive Leadership Style is based on characteristics that have been described as more feminine, such asThe Interactive Leadership StyleHistorically, …Gender DifferencesSlide 23Slide 24Slide 25Research findings support the ideas thatQuestions for the FutureLeadership: Barriers & StylesThe Glass CeilingThe set of subtle barriers that are believed to prevent women and minorities from reaching the upper echelons of corporate America, government, and academia.The Numbers•According to the 2000 census, women represent 50.4% of the U.S. population and 46.5% of the labor force. •However, women only represent 5.1% of the top-level executives.Fortune Magazine 1995 Survey Results from Male & Female Middle & Top Managers91% of women & 75% of men believed that the existence of a male-dominated corporate culture is the single most important barrier for women.Fortune Magazine 1995 Survey Results from Male & Female Middle & Top ManagersOther barriers cited by women:•the exclusion of women from informal networks,•a lack of female mentors,•the existence of a glass ceiling, and•management’s belief that women are less career oriented.Other barriers cited by men: •the exclusion of women from informal networks, •lack of female mentors, •few female bosses as role models, and •difficulties women have balancing paid work and family.By not using all the potential of female employees, organizations lose in 2 ways.1. They do not get the benefit of the talents and perspective that these women can contribute.2. They get a poor return on the investment they made in these women, because many of them leave when they can not move up the executive ladder.A 1991 Bipartisan Federal Glass Ceiling Commission recommended that CEOs1. Demonstrate a genuine commitment to diversity by ensuring that all written & oral information disseminated emphasize it as a “core value”;2. Link pay, promotions, and bonuses of managers to meeting goals of diversity;3. Ensure that all qualified individuals have equal access and opportunity to compete for positions;4. Expand searches for new employees to include individuals from “noncustomary” sources with varied backgrounds and experiences;A 1991 Bipartisan Federal Glass Ceiling Commission recommended that CEOs5. Establish mentoring programs to prepare minorities and women for senior positions;6. Provide training to familiarize employees with the strengths and challenges of gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural differences;7. Initiate policies that help employees to balance the dual demands of career and family; and8. Encourage workers to participate in decision making and share information.Leadership Theories (discussed in article by Appelbaum, Audet, & Miller)Biology is Destiny Theories•These theories are based on the premise that leadership ability is biologically determined, an inborn skill of men that is lacking in women.•Research results do not support this approach.•Some studies have found some gender differences in leadership style. However, other studies have found that there are more similarities than differences in the leadership abilities of men and women, and they are equally effective.Gender Role Theories•According to these theories, gender role is a better predictor of leadership potential than sex.•There are 3 gender roles: male, female, & androgynous (a blend of male & female).•Individuals with masculine or androgynous classifications are more likely to be identified as preferred leaders than individuals with feminine classifications.The Feminine/Competency BindFeminine behavior is often associated with incompetence. Competency is usually associated with masculine behavior. When women adopt masculine traits, they are seen as unfeminine.Furthermore, the same behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than a female.For example, what is considered strong for a man may be called domineering and overly aggressive for a woman.Theories About Factors That Potentially Undermine Women’s Leadership Effectiveness1. Women’s attitudes are often based on their traditional socialization to be docile or flexible. However, this attitude is frequently seen as incompetent and not leader-like. Also, when an individual’s mobility is blocked (as by the glass ceiling), the person becomes pessimistic and disengaged, whereas indications of opportunity foster optimism and engagement.Theories About Factors That Potentially Undermine Women’s Leadership Effectiveness2. Women’s self-confidence may be diminished by second-class treatment they receive in the leadership hierarchy. Self-confidence has been found to be an important component in predicting leadership potential.Theories About Factors That Potentially Undermine Women’s Leadership Effectiveness3. The Corporate Environment Opportunities for employment in male-dominated occupations have increased, but resistance to women’s presence has resulted in many women leaving these jobs. By disproportionately employing women in jobs that lack regular promotion procedures or less frequently implementing regular promotion procedures in women’s jobs, employers not only reduce women’s chances for promotion but encourage women to lose hope of being promoted.Theories About Factors That Potentially Undermine Women’s Leadership Effectiveness4. The Old Boy’s Network fosters solidarity between men but marginalizes, controls, and divides women. Male managers who often make decisions affecting the upward mobility of women have been found to perceive the characteristics needed for managerial success as being associated with those