1Individual BehaviorSocial Information ProcessingModel of Perception• Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuli• Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata- The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differences©2The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.Comprehensive ScaleVery Veryincomprehensive Neutral comprehensive1 2 3 4 5Source: John D. Bransford and Marcia K. Johnson.• Stage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long-term memory- Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people• Stage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisionsSocial Information ProcessingModel of Perception(continued)©3Common Perceptual Errors©4 Halo: A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.4 Leniency: A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.4 Central Tendency: The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.4 Recency Effects: The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.4 Contrast Effects: The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.Kelley’s Model of Attribution• Consensus- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his orher peers.- Low consensus indicates an individual is different from peers.• Distinctiveness- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks.- Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks. Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 19986-11Irwin/McGraw-Hill4Kelley’s Model of Attribution(continued)• Consistency- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time.• Predictions- Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency.- External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, andlow consistency. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 19986-12Irwin/McGraw-HillThe “Prima Donnas”• Describe the critic’s views of the behavior of the opera stars presented in the video.• Describe the opera stars’ own views of their behavior.• How do the perceptions of the critics and the stars differ?• How do the attributions of the critics and the stars differ?• What explains these differences?• What changes are necessary to ensure accurate perceptions and attributions by both critics and opera stars?5Causal AttributionHEIDER KELLEYLow ConsensusInternal (Personal) Low DistinctivenessHigh ConsistencyHigh ConsensusExternal (Situation) High DistinctivenessLow Consistency“Age & Attitudes”• Why does age discrimination occur in the workplace?• What are the consequences for older workers and for other workers?• What are the advantages and disadvantages of employing older workers?• Why should an organization develop a diverse work force that includes older workers?• What legal responsibilities does a manager have regarding using age as a hiring or promotion criteria?610CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTIONWould most other people say or do the same thing in the situation?ConsensusDistinctivenessConsistencyIs the behavior unusual or atypical for that person?Does the person engage in the behavior consistently?© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,