Erving Goffman:1.Considered the most influential sociologist of the 20th C.Best known for study of symbolic interpretation. Major area of work: social construction of self, social interactions.2.3.Famous book: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.○People in social interactions engage in certain practices to avoid embarrassing themselves or others. ○Society is not homogeneous; we must act differently in different settingsIdeologies: 4.Multiple Choice Tests:Exercise great caution if you decide to change an answer. Experience indicates that many students who change answers change to the wrong answer.—Brownstein, Wolf, and Green, Barron’s How to Prepare for the GRE: Graduate Record Examination, 2000, p. 6When taking multiple-choice tests, it is often the case that one answer seems correct initially, but on further reflection another answer seems correct. In such situations, is it better to switch your answer— or to stick with your first instinct?Results from studies:Answer changes from wrong to right outnumber changes from right to wrong and that people who change their answers generallybenefit from doing so.Related concepts:First Instinct Fallacy: People overestimate the effectiveness of sticking with their first instinct when taking multiple-choice tests. The key assumption in this account is that changing the correct answer to an incorrect answer engenders more “if only . . .” self-recriminations than does failing to change an incorrect answer to the correct answer.Action Identification Theory:Developed by Robin Vallacher and Daniel Wegner, this theory specifies the principles by which people adopt a single act identity for their behavior and outlines the conditions under which people maintain this act identity or adopt a new one.•“Taking a test,” could be identified as “showing one's knowledge,” “earning a grade,” or “answering questions.” •If we were to interrupt 100 shoppers in the midst of the act of exchanging money for a pair of jeans and ask them, "What are you doing?", the responses would be likely to vary considerably, ranging from "taking money out of my wallet" to "buying pants" to "trying to stay in fashion" to "answering a silly question". In other words, while the mechanical details of their actions may be nearly identical at the moment of the query, the cognitive representation or identification of their actions may differ remarkably.Some examples:Critical Period Hypothesis:The Critical Period Hypothesis states that the first few years of life constitute the time during which language develops readily and after which (sometime between age 5 and puberty) language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful. It was proposed by linguist Eric Lenneberg in 1967. This hypothesis was based on evidence from:(1) feral children and victims of child abuse who were reared without exposure to human language and thus were unable to fully acquire the ability to produce it; (2) deaf children who were unable to develop spoken language after puberty; (3) evidence that children with aphasia have a better chance at recovery than aphasiac adults. The critical period for second language acquisition coincides approximately with the formal operational stage of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Age 11+).NOTE: The critical period is fundamentally different than the sensitive period, which is a more extended period of time during development when an individual is more receptive to specific types of environmental stimuli, usually because nervous system development is especially sensitive to certain sensory stimuli. This makes the individual more predisposed to learning.Emotional Intelligence:Exam 3Wednesday, November 13, 20131:02 AM New Section 1 2 Page 1•Emotional Intelligence as a concept was first proposed by Edward Thorndike (1920).•Developed by John Mayer, Peter Salovey, and David Caruso (2002, 2008). •Does not include traits such as self-esteem and optimism. Emotional Intelligence as developed by Mayer et al., is to describe people who are socially and self-aware. •High scores on emotional intelligence have been attributed to better relationships, psychological well-being, job performance, empathy, and greater "conscious" effort. •Multiple intelligence man Howard Gardner (1999; see diagram below) says: "Stretch 'intelligence' to include everything we prize and it will lose its meaning". New Section 1 2 Page 2MEMORY CONSTRUCTION ERRORS:•False memories/imagination inflation: In today's world, digitally altered photographs (e.g. photoshopped family pictures) can produce imagination inflation and false memories.Source amnesia is also called source misattribution. There's an interesting story about famed psychologist Piaget who suffered from some source misattribution (he constructed a memory of his childhood where his nursemaid thwarted his kidnapping). ••Vujà dé: The distinct sense that somehow, something just happened that has never happened before. Nothing seems familiar. Then suddenly, the feeling is gone.•Hindsight bias, also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination to see events that have already occurred as being more predictable than they were before they took place. It may cause memory distortion, where the recollection and reconstruction of content can lead to false theoretical outcomes. E.g.Other terminologies:Confirmation bias: New Section 1 2 Page 3Fixation:The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. An example of fixation is mental set, our tendency to approach a problem with the mind set of what has worked for us previously (match stick example in textbook). Recommended reading: http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/10/three-cognitive-traps-that-stifle-global-innovation/PRACTICE QUESTIONS:Ans. (B)Ans. (B) New Section 1 2 Page 4Ans. (c)Ans. (e)Ans. (C)Ans. (C)Ans. (B)Ans. (A) New Section 1 2 Page 5Ans. (D)Ans. (A)Ans. (B)Ans. (D)Ans. (C)Ans. (B) New Section 1 2 Page 6Ans. (B)Ans. (A)Ans. (C)Ans.(C)MEMORY-RELATED QUESTIONS: Ans. 7Ans. Long-term memoryAns. Working memoryAns. Semantic encoding New Section 1 2 Page 7Ans. HippocampusAns. Retention; acquisitionAns. RehearsalAns. A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuliAns. Primacy effectAns. Sensory memoryAns. visual; automaticAns. synapsesAns. Photographic, or picture image, memory that lasts for only a few tenths of a secondOTHER CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD BE CLEAR ABOUT (note that this is not