EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION IN MODULES David MyersMemorySlide 3Slide 4Slide 5MemoryThe Phenomenon of MemoryStudying Memory: Information Processing ModelsSlide 9Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of MemoryModifications to the Three-Stage ModelWorking MemoryEncoding: Getting Information InAutomatic ProcessingEffortful ProcessingSlide 16Slide 17What We EncodeEncoding MeaningVisual EncodingOrganizing Information for Encoding ChunkingChunkingHierarchyStorage: Retaining InformationSensory MemorySlide 26Slide 27Long-Term MemoryStoring Memories in the BrainSynaptic ChangesSlide 31Stress Hormones & MemoryStoring Implicit & Explicit MemoriesSlide 34Slide 35Slide 36Retrieval: Getting Information OutSlide 38Retrieval CuesPrimingContext EffectsSlide 42Moods and MemoriesEXPLORINGPSYCHOLOGYEIGHTH EDITION IN MODULESDavid MyersPowerPoint SlidesAneeq AhmadHenderson State UniversityWorth Publishers, © 20112MemoryInformation ProcessingModule 2034The Phenomenon of MemoryStudying Memory: Information Processing ModelsEncoding: Getting Information InHow We Encode: Levels of ProcessingWhat We Encode5Storage: Retaining InformationSensory MemoryWorking/Short-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryStoring Information in the BrainRetrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues6MemoryMemory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.7The Phenomenon of MemoryMemory is the persistence of learning over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.Human memory can be pretty amazing.People who were shown the whole image 17 years before were more likely to identify the fragment.8Studying Memory: Information Processing ModelsTo remember any event we must:- Encode, or process the information into our brains- Store, or retain, the information- Be able to retrieve the information, get it back outStudying Memory: Information Processing ModelsAtkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that we form memories in three stages:1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory.2. From there, we process information into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal.3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.910Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of MemoryThe Atkinson/Shiffrin model, though important, is limited and fallible. The updated model is below.11Modifications to the Three-Stage Model•Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.•Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.12Working MemoryA newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory13Encoding: Getting Information InHow We Encode1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.14Automatic ProcessingWe process an enormous amount of information through automatic processing, encoding without conscious effort, such as: Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.Well-learned material: For example, seeing words in your native language you can’t help but register their meaning.15Effortful ProcessingEffortful processing requires attention and conscious effort, but often leads to durable and accessible memories.Learning the concepts in this module requires effortful processing.16Effortful ProcessingWhen learning new information be can boost memory through rehearsal, or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZThrough this he discovered the spacing effect - the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than through massed study or practice.17Effortful ProcessingThe serial position effect, our tendency torecall best the last and first items in a list, further illustrates the benefits of rehearsal.18What We Encode1. Encoding by meaning2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization19Encoding MeaningProcessing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.20Visual EncodingImagery, or mental pictures, is a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.Imagery is at the heart of many mnemonic devices, or memory aids. Some modern mnemonic devices rely on both acoustic and visual codes.21Mnemonic devices can help organize material for later retrieval. Chunking, organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically.Organizing Information for EncodingChunking22ChunkingTry to remember the numbers below.1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.23HierarchyHierarchies takes a few broad concepts and breaks them down into categories and subcategories.Fig 20.924Storage: Retaining InformationStorage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:SensoryMemoryWorkingMemoryLong-termMemoryEncodingRetr ievalEncodingEventsRetrieval25Sensory MemoryResearcher George Sperling showed people groups of letters and later asked them to recall what they saw. His experiments revealed iconic memory – a momentary sensory memory for visual stimuli – and echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory for auditory stimuli.26Working MemoryTo test the duration of a memory Peterson and Peterson (1959), asked people to remember three-consonant groups and prevented rehearsal by asking them, for example, to start at 100 and count aloud backward by threes.27Working MemoryWorking memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). Short-term recall is slightly better for random digits than it is for random