- Divide into 5 groups based on chaptersChapter 26 Main Points:- phylogeny: phylogeny to trace the evolutionary history of a species or group of species - systematics: systematics, which is an analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of organisms, to construct a phylogeny - taxonomy: an ordered division of organisms into categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differences- SPECIES, GENUS, FAMILY, ORDER, CLASS, PHYLUM, KINGDOM- binomial nomenclature: the two-part format of the scientific name of an organism o First part: Genus o Second part: specific epithet (species) o First letter of the genus is capitalized and the entire binomial is italicized - Cladistics uses common ancestry as the primary criterion in classifying organisms o Species are placed into groups called clades o WHAT ARE TRUE CLADES CALLED? DRAW A PICTURE. (monophyletic)- 5 Kingdoms (Whittaker): plant, fungi, animalia, protista, monara - 3 domains: bacteria, eukarya, archaeaChapter 27 Main Points:- Bacteria vs. Archaea: Archaea tend to live in extreme environments, share some traits with bacteria and others with eukaryao Archaea: extremophiles (halophiles, methanophiles, thermophiles)o Prokaryote shape/structure: unicellular; coccia, bacilli, or spirochetes (DRAW THESE)- Gram positive/gram negative bacteria: main difference is amount of peptidoglycan in cell wallo WHICH HAS MORE? (positive)o ARCHAEA CELL WALLS DO NOT HAVE- Terms:o Capsule: sticky polysaccharide layer of proteins on prokaryoteso Binary fission: how prokaryotes reproduce asexuallyo Endospores: resistant forms of spores formed by some bacteria when under stresso Endotoxins: harmful components of outer membrane of some bacteria, released when cell wall breaks down (ENDO=IN CELL WALL) salmonella o Exotoxins: poisonous proteins secreted by bacteria (EXO=RELEASED FROM CELL) cholera, botulism- Aerobic/Anaerobic- Nutritional modes:- Most important ecological role: decomposers - Symbiotic relationships: comm. (one benefits, other not harmed/helped), mutual. (both helped), parasitism (one helped other harmed)Chapter 28 Main Points- 5 supergroups: Excavata, Chromalveolata, Archaeplastida, Unikonta, RhizariaExcavata- Diplomonadso 2 equal-sized nucleio multiple flagellao many are parasitic- Parabasalidso include the trichomonadso 4 flagellao undulating membrane- Euglenozoanso very diverseo contain a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagellao include kinetoplastids and euglenids Kinetoplastids- have a single, large mitochondrion that contains an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast- include free-living aquatic and terrestrial species as well as parasitic species Euglenids- have one or two flagella contained in a pocket at the end of the cell- most familiar member is EuglenaChromalveolata- Alveolateso have membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membraneo include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates Dinoflagellates- abundant components of marine and freshwater phytoplankton- spin as they move through the water- most are unicellular- rapid reproduction can cause “red tides”o toxins may be fatal to fish and humanso molluscs may accumulate toxins- some species are bioluminescent Apicomplexans- all are parasites of animals- spread through infective cells called sprozoites- most have a complex life cycle that require two or more host species Ciliates- use cilia to move and feed- have both macronuclei and micronuclei- reproduce by binary fission- genetic variation results from conjugation- Stramenopileso have a “hairy” and “smooth” flagellumo include diatoms, golden algae, brown algae, and oomycetes Diatoms- unicellular algae that have a glass-like wall of hydrated silica- highly diverse- major component of plankton- form diatomaceous earth golden algae- named for their color- biflagellated- photosynthetic- most are unicellular brown algae- all are multicellular, most are marine- includes seaweeds oomycetes- water molds, water rusts, downy mildews- once considered to be fungi- acquire nutrients mainly as decomposers or parasitesRhizaria- Foraminiferans (Forams)o named for their porous shells, called testso pseudopodia extend through their pores in tests - Radiolarianso tests fused into a delicate piece of silicao pseudopodia radiate from the central bodyArchaeplastida- red algae (rhodophytes)o most are reddish due to the accessory pigment phycoerythrin, which masks chlorophyll- green algaeo contains chloroplasts o closely related to land plantso include chlorophytes and chlorophyceans- Chlorophytes- most live in freshwater, some are marine- others live in soil, as symbionts in lichens, or in snowUnikonta- Amoebozoanso have lobe-shaped, rather than thread-like pseudopodia o include the slime molds, gymnamoebas, entamoebaso slime molds slime molds (mycetozoans)- once thought to be a fungi- include plasmodial and cellular slime moldso plasmodial slime molds brightly pigmented (yellow or orange) form a mass called a plasmodiumo cellular slime mold the feeding stage of the life cycle consists of solitary cells that function individually when food is depleted, cells form an aggregate that function as a unit cells remain separated by their membraneso gymnamoebas unicellular found in soil and freshwater/marine environments actively seek and consume bacteria and other protistso entamoebas parasites of vertebrates and invertebrates Entamoeba histolytica causes amebic dysentery and kills 100,000 per year- Opisthokontso nucleariidso fungio choanoflagellateso animals- plasmodium life cycle: - Binary fission vs. conjugation:o WHICH PROTIST REPRODUCES BY BINARY FISSION? Ciliates, asexualo WHAT DO THEY USE CONJUGATION FOR? Sexual reproduction, provides genetic variation, use of sex pilluso WHY DO ONE, NOT OTHER? Binary fission is FAST, conjugation allows for variation- Cellular slime mold/plasmodial slime mold: plasmodial is one giant unicellular blob, cellular has independent cells that function on their own- Terms:o Red tide: dinoflagellates, shellfish toxinso Tests: porous shells, Foramso Merozoite: cells that plasmodium are carried by, stage in humans, found in liver cellso Sporozoite: infective cells that carry plasmodium (malaria), what infect liver o Endosymbiosis: process about how protists became diverseo kinetoplastid: Have a single, large mitochondrion that contains an organized mass
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