11MemoryChapter 92MemoryMemory is the basis for knowing your friends,your neighbors, the English language, thenational anthem, and yourself.If memory was nonexistent, everyone would bea stranger to you; every language foreign; everytask new; and even you yourself would be astranger.3The Phenomenon of MemoryMemory is any indication that learning haspersisted over time. It is our ability to store andretrieve information.4Flashbulb MemoryA unique and highly emotional moment maygive rise to a clear, strong, and persistentmemory called flashbulb memory. However,this memory is not free from errors.President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.Ruters/ Corbis5Stages of MemoryKeyboard(Encoding)Disk(Storage)Monitor(Retrieval)Sequential Process6Information ProcessingThe Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage modelof memory includes a) sensory memory, b)short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.Bob Daemmrich/ The Image WorksBob Daemmrich/ The Image WorksFrank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis27Problems with the Model Some information skips the first two stagesand enters long-term memory automatically. Because we cannot focus all the sensoryinformation in the environment, we selectinformation (through attention) that isimportant to us. The nature of short-term memory is morecomplex.8Working MemoryAlan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working memorycontains auditory and visual processing controlled by thecentral executive through an episodic buffer.9Encoding: Getting Information InHow We Encode Some information (route to your school) isautomatically processed. However, new or unusual information(friend’s new cell-phone number) requiresattention and effort.10Automatic ProcessingWe process an enormous amount ofinformation effortlessly, such as thefollowing: Space: While reading a textbook, youautomatically encode the place of a pictureon a page. Time: We unintentionally note the eventsthat take place in a day. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track ofthings that happen to you.11Effortful ProcessingCommitting novelinformation to memoryrequires effort just likelearning a concept froma textbook. Suchprocessing leads todurable and accessiblememories.Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit© Bananastock/ Alamy12RehearsalEffortful learningusually requiresrehearsal or consciousrepetition.Ebbinghaus studiedrehearsal by usingnonsense syllables:TUV YOF GEK XOZHermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de313RehearsalThe more times thenonsense syllables werepracticed on Day 1,the fewer repetitions wererequired to rememberthem on Day 2.14Memory Effects Next-in-line-Effect: When you are soanxious about being next that you cannotremember what the person just before youin line says, but you can recall what otherpeople around you say. Spacing Effect: We retain information betterwhen we rehearse over time. Serial Position Effect: When your recall isbetter for first and last items on a list, butpoor for middle items.15Spacing EffectDistributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is betterthan practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poemcould be memorized with fair ease if spread overtime.ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHTRobert FrostI have been one acquainted with the night.I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.I have outwalked the furthest city light.… …16Serial Position Effect1. TUV2. ZOF3. GEK4. WAV5. XOZ6. TIK7. FUT8. WIB9. SAR10. POZ11. REY12. GIJBetter recallBetter recallPoor recall17What We Encode Encoding by meaning Encoding by images Encoding by organization18Encoding MeaningQ: Did the word begin with a capital letter?StructuralEncodingQ: Did the word rhyme with the word “weight”?Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street.PhonemicEncodingSemanticEncoding“Whale”Craik and Lockhart (1972)IntermediateDeepShallow419Results20Adaptive Memory• Another example of evolutionary psychology’s influence; this time onmemory.21Visual EncodingMental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid toeffortful processing, especially when combinedwith semantic encoding.Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.Both photos: Ho/AP Photo22MnemonicsImagery is at the heart of many memory aids.Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery inaiding memory.1. Method of Loci2. Link Method23Method of LociList of ItemsCharcoalPensBed SheetsHammer...RugImagined LocationsBackyardStudyBedroomGarage...Living Room24Link MethodInvolves forming a mental image of items to beremembered in a way that links them together.List of ItemsNewspaperShaving creamPenUmbrella...Lamp525Break down complex information into broadconcepts and further subdivide them intocategories and subcategories.Organizing Information forEncoding1. Chunking2. Hierarchy26ChunkingOrganizing items into a familiar, manageableunit. Try to remember the numbers below.1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1If you are well versed with American history,chunk the numbers together and see if youcan recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.27ChunkingAcronyms are another way of chunkinginformation to remember it.HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorPEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, SubtractROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet28HierarchyComplex information broken down into broadconcepts and further subdivided into categoriesand subcategories.29Encoding Summarized in aHierarchy30Storage: Retaining InformationStorage is at the heart of memory. Threestores of memory are shown below:SensoryMemoryWorkingMemoryLong-termMemoryEncodingRetrievalEncodingEventsRetrieval631Sensory MemorySensoryMemoryWorkingMemoryLong-termMemoryEncodingRetrievalEncodingEventsRetrieval32Whole ReportThe exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.R G TF M QL Z S50 ms (1/20 second)“Recall”R T M Z(44% recall)Sperling (1960)33Partial ReportLow ToneMedium ToneHigh Tone“Recall”J R S(100% recall)Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacitywas larger than what was originally thought.50 ms (1/20 second)S X TJ R SP K Y34Time Delay“Recall”N _ _(33% recall)TimeDelay50 ms (1/20 second)A D IN L VO G HLow ToneMedium ToneHigh Tone35Sensory MemoryThe longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.20406080Percent Recognized0.15 0.30 0.501.00Time (Seconds)36Sensory MemoriesIconic0.5 sec. longEchoic3-4 sec. longHepatic< 1 sec. longThe duration of sensory memory varies for
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