1Week 2. Clauses and Treesand c-command, oh my.CAS LX 522Syntax IPreviously, in LX 522…n Sentences have structure, and are made up ofconstituents.n The constituents are phrases.n A phrase consists of a head and modifiers.n The categorial type of the head determines thecategorial type of the phrase (e.g., a phraseheaded by a noun is a noun phrase).n There are several categories, we looked at someof them and determined phrase structure rules ortemplates for what each kind of phrase cancontain.Previously, in LX 522…n We looked at NP, VP, PP, AdvP, andAdjP.n NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)n PP: P (NP)n VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)n AdjP: (AdvP) Adjn AdvP: (AdvP) AdvTrees and constituencyn A sentence has a hierarchical structuren Constituents can have constituents of their own.n The simplest way to draw this is with a tree.ontheNPPNPPDtableTreesn The tree diagram is the most importantanalytical notation we will work with,and we will use a lot of trees throughthe semester, so it is important to beable to understand and draw trees.Step 1: Identify categoriesThe first step is to identify the category ofeach of the words in the sentence.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NP2Step 2: Locate modificationThe second step is to figure out themodification relations between words.What modifies what?Here, we have several thes and eachmodifies the noun to its right.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPStep 3: Apply rulesThe third step is to apply our rules,remembering the Golden Rule ofModifiers: Modifiers are always attachedwithin the phrase they modify.So we look at the things being modified,and consult the rule for things of thatcategory.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPStep 3: Apply rulesWe have several N’s being modified.So we consult our rule about NPs:n NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)Starting at the right edge, we see that thetable can form an NP.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPStep 3: Apply rulesSo, we draw an NP above the table.Now, consider on. It is a P, and there is onlyone kind of phrase which can contain a P:n PP: P NPCan we build a PP with what we have?The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPStep 3: Apply rulesSure, we can draw in a PP for on the table.Next, look at book. It is an N and the onlyrule we have that contains an N is NP:n NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)Can we build an NP?The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPStep 3: Apply rulesHere, we have two choices.n NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)An NP may but need not contain a PP. Wehave D N PP at our disposal. We couldput them all in an NP, or we could leavethe PP out of the NP.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPP3Step 3: Apply rulesOnly one choice is the right choice. How dowe know which one it is?Answer: The Golden Rule of Modifiers.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesIn The student put the book on the table, doeson the table modify book? If so, it needs tobe in the NP headed by book.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesCompare this sentence toThe student saw the book on the tableWhat is the difference them with respect toon the table?The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesOn the table in our sentence modifies put (itspecifies the goal location of the putting);it does not modify book, and so it shouldnot be included in the same NP as book (itshould be in the same phrase as put).The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNPStep 3: Apply rulesOnly one of our phrase structure rules has aV, the VP rule, so we can build a VP.n VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)We just determined that on the tablemodifies the verb, so the VP must containthe NP and the PP following the V.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNPStep 3: Apply rulesThe last step we can do with the rules wehave so far is to build the NP over thestudent.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNPVP4Step 3: Apply rulesUsing the idea that the sentence has an NPand a VP (which we will soon add to ourrules), we can complete the tree.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNPVPNPStep 3: Apply rulesAnd that’s our tree for The student put thebook on the table.The student put the book on the tableD N V D DN NPNPPPNPVPNPSThe S noden At the end of our tree, we had to posit arule which we hadn’t yet formalized:n S: NP VPn This is a good first approximation, butthere are a couple of problems with thisformulationThe S noden The first problem is that it is not completeas it stands. Consider:n The students will eat the sandwiches.n We have an NP the students, which is thesubject of the sentence.n We have an NP the sandwiches and a VP eatthe sandwiches.n But what is will?The S noden There are a number of things which can go inthis position. One group of these are calledmodals:n Pat could leave.n Pat should leave.n Pat might leave.n Pat will leave.n Pat would leave.n Modals appear between the subject NP (Pat) andthe VP (leave). So, we need to allow for this inour S rule.The S noden S: NP (Modal) VPn We also need to allow for the not innegative sentences like:n Pat might not leave.n Pat should not leave.n So, we now haven S: NP (Modal) (Neg) VP5Do-supportn Pat left.n Pat did not leave.n *Pat not left.n When you negate a sentence like thisin English, you need to use do.n Do looks like it is in the same placethat modals are.n When you use do like this, do getsmarked for tense, not the verb.Do-supportn In fact, when you have something in the“Modal” slot, the verb never shows past tensemarking.n Pat left.n Pat will (not) leave.n Pat did not leave.n Pat should not leave.n Hypothesis: The “modal” slot is where thetense marking (past, present, future) goes.Do-supportn For this reason, we will call the “modal”slot “T” (for “tense”).n S: NP (T) (Neg) VPn Terminology note: This position has goneby several names in linguistic history.n 60’s: Aux (auxiliary, for have and be)n 80’s: Infl or I (inflection, including