Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Lectures 10 and 11 1 ANTHROPOLOGY 101 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY NOTES FROM LECTURES 10 AND 11 IDENTITY GENDER ROLES AND GROUPS Gender roles the cultural expectations of men and women in a particular society Gender hierarchy the ways in which these attributes are differentially valued and related to the distribution of resources prestige and power Gender roles and gender hierarchy are clearly related to each other On one hand access to material resources prestige power and autonomy depends significantly on what one does or is allowed to do in society on the other hand what one does in society affects one s access to and control over valued material and symbolic resources that are the bases of hierarchy Is Male Dominance Universal This question emerged as an early debate in the anthropology of gender The question Is male dominance universal has been a recurrent question in the study of anthropology Research has established that most if not all of societies have gender hierarchy and that men dominate in these societies Within the understanding of gender hierarchy it has been established by research throughout the world that patriarchy is universal In principle there could be a matriarchal society but in reality there is not a matriarchal society There is no truly egalitarian society the closest we get to that is hunting and gathering societies where women have a very high standing and in many respects equal positions to men Why is that the case MATERIALISTIC THEORY This theory asserts that women are dominated because they belong to the domestic sphere that is the household and that men belong to the public sphere Ernestine Friedl s article SYMBOLIC THEORY This theory is based on the woman s body and establishes that women are associated with nature and men with culture and that in western societies culture is viewed as higher than nature Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Lectures 10 and 11 2 Because of her productive capabilities the woman s body is perceived as polluted unclean and in need of control These arguments have been challenged because there are so many other options This model private public dichotomy is not applicable in many non Western societies where home and family and economics and politics were not easily separated In addition some of these studies were based on middle class western assumptions Women in lower classes have never had the luxury not to work and therefore they have not been confined to the private sphere Although they have some level of independence and decision making men continue to dominate at the public level SEX AND GENDER Some of the assumptions that revolve around sex are There is no ambiguity in terms of sex they are mutually exclusive Sex cannot be changed Sex equals gender There are only two sexes Sex The physiological differences associated with male and female Gender the behavioral cultural or psychological traits typically associated with male and female However we know that there are not only two sexes There are hermaphrodites and also Trans sexual people who has permanently changed their biological sex and or has physically changed their sex through surgery There are two types of transsexual options FTM Female to male transition and MTF male to female transition These changes are seen in the medical world as a pathological problem Transgender people who do not identify as their biological sex There is a medical term for this gender dysphoria a medical condition in which one person feels that his or her biological sex does not match his or her true gender identity Examples of an alternative sex are the hijras They are an example of alternative sex and alternative gender roles Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Lectures 10 and 11 3 CULTURAL VARIATION IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR In addition to varying in the number of sexes and genders they recognize cultures also vary in their definitions of appropriate sexual behaviors The cultural component in sexual behavior is not easily understood Sexual activity is often viewed as doing what comes naturally However a cross cultural perspective on sexual behavior demonstrates that every aspect of human sexual activity is patterned by culture and influenced by learning Culture patterns the habitual responses of different peoples to different parts of the body What is considered erotic in some cultures evokes indifference or disgust in others For example kissing is not practiced in many societies The Tahitians learned to kiss from the Europeans but before this cultural contact they began sexual intimacy by sniffing The Trobiands inspect each other s hair for lice before having intercourse and find the European habit of boys and girls going out on a picnic with food disgusting Who is considered an appropriate sexual partner also differs in different cultures In some societies for example homosexual activity is considered somewhat shameful or abnormal but in other societies it is a matter of indifference of approval Among the Sambia of New guinea a period of obligatory homosexual relationships is part of the initiation for every adolescent male who as an adult is expected to enter a heterosexual marriage The reason for this activity is because the Sambia believe that only men can create men and therefore by spending time in a separate place and engaging in sexual intercourse with men men become vigorous and strong warriors This contrast sharply with the dominant view in the US which establishes that heterosexuality is essential to masculine identity
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