Lecture 27 Sociology 621 MICROFOUNDATIONS FOR THE THEORY OF IDEOLOGY 1. STATING THE PROBLEM: What Are “Micro-foundations” and Why Bother? 1.1 model of action: Individual subjects are subjectively characterized by: a. preferences: what they want (includes values which may internally select/rule out certain preferences). Some notes about preferences: $ These need not be viewed as fixed -- preferences change and are often fuzzy. $ individual action often involves forming/discovering preferences, not just acting pregiven preferences b. information: perceptions about what exists, what options are available c. theories: conceptions about what will be the consequences of given choices for their preferences, given the information d. mental capacities: including both conventional things like cognitive abilities and skills, but also creative capacities, problem-solving ability, intuitive abilities, empathetic capacities, flexibility, etc. e. nonconscious psychic processes: underlying drives, “the unconscious”, personality, dispositions, habits They are objectively characterized by: f. resources of various sorts at their disposal (capacities to act = real power relations) g. causal environment of choosing. This includes, some onbvious things like the feasible set of possible choices. But also much more interesting things like: the social-interactions which affect how individual capabilities are actually deployed. For example, “problem-solving capacity” and “creativity” may be mental capacities – some people have these more developed than others. But their actual use in social action is heavily conditioned by interaction and communication. The aphorism “two heads are better than one” is actually a deep claim about problem-solving. h. a causal environment of the effects of their actions (they chose their actions in terms of anticipated effects, not real effects).Lecture 27. Microfoundations of ideology 2 On the basis of these subjective factors (preferences, information, theories, capacities and nonconscious psychic structures) and given the available resources actors/subjects make choices about what to do, and the resulting actions have actual consequences for the subject and others. a+b+c+d+e = subjectivity a+b+c = ideological processes of subjectivity (consciousnessness) 1.2 Four aspects of Micro-foundations: (1). Micro-mechanisms of consciousness formation: mechanisms through which preferences, information and theories are produced = the micro-formation of ideologies. (2). The micro-mechanisms of nonconsciousness formation: mechanisms through which nonconscious psychic processes are formed and transformed = the micro-formation of personality, habit, etc. (3). Micro-process of choice-making: given preferences, information, theories, and other psychic structures, how are choices actually made, how are strategies formed, etc. One class of models of this sort of process, with relatively simple assumptions about cognition, etc. = rational actor models. (4). Micro-processes of creative action, problem-solving: This is different from “choice” per se: choice !pretty clear preferences/goals, etc. Here the issue is the creative act of coming up with new solutions, new ideas, etc. This is what the work of Hans Joas is about. In creative action means and ends co-evolve through problem solving. In Therborn’s analysis, this process was elaborated in terms of affirmations and sanctions = basically a behaviorist model of reinforcement, etc. = A simple learning model of belief-formation. Elster offers a more complex model for the formation of beliefs and values, a model rooted in cognitive psychology. 1.3 Why Bother? a. general point: a complete theory contains micro-foundations b. Methodological point: in the case of theories of ideology the analysis of mechanisms is especially important given the object of explanation -- beliefs: to have confidence in our beliefs about beliefs we need some knowledge of the causal mechanisms involved. c. To transform beliefs we need knowledge of their mechanisms of productionLecture 27. Microfoundations of ideology 3 2. TYPES OF EXPLANATIONS OF IDEOLOGIES (465ff in Elster) Note: Object of explanation in Elster’s analysis is somewhat narrower than our previous discussion of ideology as the process of subject-formation: “beliefs and values that have society as their object as well as their explanation”. 2.1. Autonomy of Thought A precondition for micro-processes to have much substantive interest is for thought to have a certain kind of autonomy. If all categories of thought were pure, instantaneous reflections of material conditions, there would be little reason to care about micro-foundations. Belief-formation is of interest because it is not a simple reflection. Important issue = whether the social cause or the cognitive cause sets the basic limits: constraint vs. maximand in Elster’s views. Elster feels the more plausible = class interests constitute a constraint rather than maximand (i.e. minimal correspondence is needed) 2.2 Types of Explanations a. interest explanations vs. position explanations b. causal explanations vs. functional explanations $ all position-explanations are causal $ interest explanations can be causal or functional: $ a belief may be explained because it is shaped by interests or because it serves interests. NOTE: a belief that is shaped by interests does not necessarily serve interests: there is no inherent reason for functionality to always be produced (eg. wishful thinking). c. Examples: $ interest-functional explanation: Capitalists believe that socialism is undesirable because it actually serves their interests to believe this. $ interest-causal explanation: radical workers in the 1930s often believed that the USSR embodied communist ideals. “The wish is parent to the thought”. It might not, however, have really served their interests to hold this belief (i.e. it could lead them to be uncompromising in situations where compromises would be beneficial). Arguably the collapse of the Weimar Republic was in part due to the unwillingness of communists to form alliances with social democrats. $ position-casual explanations: commodity fetishism.Lecture 27. Microfoundations of ideology 4 2.3 Cognitive and Motivational explanations Cognitive psychology: motivational explanations (hot) vs. cognitive explanations (cold)