ESS 7 Lecture 13 October 29, 2008 Substorms Time Series of Images of the Auroral SubstormSlide Number 3Slide Number 4Slide Number 5Magnetic ObservatoriesSlide Number 7Slide Number 8Slide Number 9Slide Number 10Slide Number 11Slide Number 12Slide Number 13Slide Number 14Slide Number 15The Events Described are Controversial Slide Number 17Slide Number 18AssignmentESS 7ESS 7 Lecture 13Lecture 13 October 29, 2008October 29, 2008 SubstormsSubstormsTime Series of Images of the Auroral Substorm• This set of images in the ultra-violet from the Polar satellite shows changes that occur during an auroral substorm.• In aurora substorms go through a series of stages.• They start with a brightening of an auroral arc nearest the equator.• Moments later the aurora brightens more, and expands poleward and to the west.• Soon Akasufu discovered the auroral substorm in 1964 the search began to find the corresponding changes in the magnetosphere and the solar wind.• The auroral activity is associated with currents in the ionosphere which create magnetic field changes.• Much of the effort in studying substorms has been to define the solar-wind coupling parameters that can be used to predict the strength of magnetic activity. The Discovery of the Substorm• There is one more major set of currents in the magnetosphere-field aligned or Birkeland currents– The field aligned currents extend from the magnetosphere to the ionosphere. – Region 1 currents are at high latitudes and flow into the ionosphere on the dawn side of the magnetosphere and out on the dusk side.– Region 2 currents at lower latitudes flow into the ionosphere on the dusk side and out on the dawn side.A Digression on Field Aligned Currents– Magnetopause currents– Ring current– Parallel currents – Tail currents with magnetopause currents removed.The red and blue currents occur during substorms.Summary of Magnetospheric CurrentsMagnetic Observatories• There are over 500 observatories (250 in previous figure)– Data from so many sources is difficult to handle.– Indices have been generated to organize these observations.• The primary sources of ground magnetic disturbances during substorms are the electrojets and the substorm current wedge.• The sources of the midlatitude storm time variations (Dst ) are the magnetopause current, the ring current and the partial ring current.Data from Magnetic Observatories• There are over 500 observatories (250 in previous figure)– Data from so many sources is difficult to handle.– Indices have been generated to organize these observations.• The primary sources of ground magnetic disturbances during substorms are the electrojets and the substorm current wedge.• The sources of the midlatitude storm time variations (Dst ) are the magnetopause current, the ring current and the partial ring current.Data from Magnetic Observatories• Positive perturbations are produced by a concentrated current (called an auroral elecrojet) flowing eastward. They are observed by stations in the afternoon or evening.• Negative perturbations are produced by a westward electrojet. They are observed near and past midnight.• These currents flow at ~120km altitude and are carried by auroral particles.• The positive and negative envelopes give the AU and AL indices.Auroral Electrojet Indices• Correlation analysis between the auroral-electrojet index AE (difference between the envelop of positive -AU- and negative - AL- magnetic perturbations at auroral latitudes) and five solar wind parameters (u, n, B, Bn , Bs )– Bn is hourly average of the BzGSM magnetic field when BzGSM >0.– Bs is hourly average of the BzGSM magnetic field when BzGSM <0.• Activity peaks in Bs for the hour prior to the hour when the activity was measured.• AL/v2 as a function of Bs (Bz <0) and Bn (Bz >0). No dependence on Bn but strong dependence on BsSubstorms Occur when the Interplanetary Magnetic is Southward• The phenomena associated with substorms in the magnetosphere start before the auroral signatures. • McPherron interpreted these phenomena as the growth phase of the substorm.– Energy extracted from the solar wind is stored in the magnetosphere. – The initial interval of slowly growing AU and AL.– The growth phase usually lasts 30 minutes to one hour.– The magnetic perturbations during the growth phase results from increased ionospheric currents. • The expansion phase corresponds to the release and unloading of the stored energy.• The recovery phase is the return of the system to its ground state.Magnetospheric Substorms• A southward turning of the IMF initiates or increases dayside reconnection.– Magnetic flux from the Earth connects to the IMF and is transported over the polar caps into the lobes.– The return flow in the magnetosphere is unable to return flux to the dayside as fast as it is removed. The dayside magnetopause is eroded.• The magnetic field in the tail lobes increases storing energy for later release.• The plasma sheet thins. The Events in the Magnetosphere During a Substorm – Growth Phase• Some time during the late growth phase reconnection begins on closed field lines in the near-Earth plasma sheet.– The reconnection is slow at first.– As closed field lines are cut they reconnect to form a magnetic O region called a plasmoid (technically a magnetic flux rope).– This stage of the substorm continues until the last closed field line is severed by the reconnection process.– The reconnection rate increases during the late growth phase.Events in the Magnetosphere During a Substorm – The Late Growth Phase• When the last closed field line is severed the reconnection rate becomes explosive. This is the onset of the expansion phase of the substorm.– The current “wedge” may occur at this time.– 20%-30% of the open magnetic flux stored in the tail lobes is rapidly reconnected.– This is the principal energy conversion process during substorms.• The severed plasmoid leaves the magnetotail.• If the reconnection fails to reach the lobe field lines the disturbance is quenched. This is called a pseudobreakup.Events in the Magnetosphere During Substorms – The Expansion Phase• The reconnection of open field lines forms closed field lines earthward of the X-line with strong earthward flows.• Eventually the balance of forces in the plasma sheet changes and the X-line begins to