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CSUN COMP 546 - Computer Evolution and Performance

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William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 8th EditionENIAC - backgroundENIAC - detailsvon Neumann/TuringStructure of von Neumann machineIAS - detailsStructure of IAS – detailCommercial ComputersIBMTransistorsTransistor Based ComputersMicroelectronicsGenerations of ComputerMoore’s LawGrowth in CPU Transistor CountIBM 360 seriesDEC PDP-8DEC - PDP-8 Bus StructureSemiconductor MemoryIntelSpeeding it upPerformance BalanceLogin and Memory Performance GapSolutionsI/O DevicesTypical I/O Device Data RatesKey is BalanceImprovements in Chip Organization and ArchitectureProblems with Clock Speed and Login DensityIntel Microprocessor PerformanceIncreased Cache CapacityMore Complex Execution LogicDiminishing ReturnsNew Approach – Multiple Coresx86 Evolution (1)x86 Evolution (2)x86 Evolution (3)Embedded Systems ARMEmbedded Systems RequirementsPossible Organization of an Embedded SystemARM EvolutionARM Systems CategoriesPerformance Assessment Clock SpeedSystem ClockInstruction Execution RateBenchmarksSPEC Speed MetricSPEC Rate MetricAmdahl’s LawAmdahl’s Law FormulaInternet ResourcesReferencesWilliam Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture8th EditionChapter 2Computer Evolution and PerformanceENIAC - background•Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer•Eckert and Mauchly•University of Pennsylvania•Trajectory tables for weapons •Started 1943•Finished 1946—Too late for war effort•Used until 1955ENIAC - details•Decimal (not binary)•20 accumulators of 10 digits•Programmed manually by switches•18,000 vacuum tubes•30 tons•15,000 square feet•140 kW power consumption•5,000 additions per secondvon Neumann/Turing•Stored Program concept•Main memory storing programs and data•ALU operating on binary data•Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and executing•Input and output equipment operated by control unit•Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies —IAS•Completed 1952Structure of von Neumann machineIAS - details•1000 x 40 bit words—Binary number—2 x 20 bit instructions•Set of registers (storage in CPU)—Memory Buffer Register—Memory Address Register—Instruction Register—Instruction Buffer Register—Program Counter—Accumulator—Multiplier QuotientStructure of IAS – detailCommercial Computers•1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation•UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)•US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations•Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation•Late 1950s - UNIVAC II—Faster—More memoryIBM•Punched-card processing equipment•1953 - the 701—IBM’s first stored program computer—Scientific calculations•1955 - the 702—Business applications•Lead to 700/7000 seriesTransistors•Replaced vacuum tubes•Smaller•Cheaper•Less heat dissipation•Solid State device•Made from Silicon (Sand)•Invented 1947 at Bell Labs•William Shockley et al.Transistor Based Computers•Second generation machines•NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines•IBM 7000•DEC - 1957—Produced PDP-1Microelectronics•Literally - “small electronics”•A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnections•These can be manufactured on a semiconductor•e.g. silicon waferGenerations of Computer•Vacuum tube - 1946-1957•Transistor - 1958-1964•Small scale integration - 1965 on—Up to 100 devices on a chip•Medium scale integration - to 1971—100-3,000 devices on a chip•Large scale integration - 1971-1977—3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip•Very large scale integration - 1978 -1991—100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip•Ultra large scale integration – 1991 -—Over 100,000,000 devices on a chipMoore’s Law•Increased density of components on chip•Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel•Number of transistors on a chip will double every year•Since 1970’s development has slowed a little—Number of transistors doubles every 18 months•Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged•Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance•Smaller size gives increased flexibility•Reduced power and cooling requirements•Fewer interconnections increases reliabilityGrowth in CPU Transistor CountIBM 360 series•1964•Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series•First planned “family” of computers—Similar or identical instruction sets—Similar or identical O/S—Increasing speed—Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)—Increased memory size —Increased cost•Multiplexed switch structureDEC PDP-8•1964•First minicomputer (after miniskirt!)•Did not need air conditioned room•Small enough to sit on a lab bench•$16,000 —$100k+ for IBM 360•Embedded applications & OEM•BUS STRUCTUREDEC - PDP-8 Bus StructureSemiconductor Memory•1970•Fairchild•Size of a single core—i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage•Holds 256 bits•Non-destructive read•Much faster than core•Capacity approximately doubles each yearIntel•1971 - 4004 —First microprocessor—All CPU components on a single chip—4 bit•Followed in 1972 by 8008—8 bit—Both designed for specific applications•1974 - 8080—Intel’s first general purpose microprocessorSpeeding it up•Pipelining•On board cache•On board L1 & L2 cache•Branch prediction•Data flow analysis•Speculative executionPerformance Balance•Processor speed increased•Memory capacity increased•Memory speed lags behind processor speedLogin and Memory Performance GapSolutions•Increase number of bits retrieved at one time—Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper”•Change DRAM interface—Cache•Reduce frequency of memory access—More complex cache and cache on chip•Increase interconnection bandwidth—High speed buses—Hierarchy of busesI/O Devices•Peripherals with intensive I/O demands•Large data throughput demands•Processors can handle this•Problem moving data •Solutions:—Caching—Buffering—Higher-speed interconnection buses—More elaborate bus structures—Multiple-processor configurationsTypical I/O Device Data RatesKey is Balance•Processor components•Main memory•I/O devices•Interconnection structuresImprovements in Chip Organization and Architecture•Increase hardware speed of processor—Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size–More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate–Propagation time for signals reduced•Increase size and speed of caches—Dedicating part of processor chip


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