Mnemonic StrategiesChunkingMethod of LociPeg Word MnemonicAcronymsWhy Do Mnemonics Devices Work?Which Mnemonic is the Best?Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval ProcessesTo Understand Memory ProcessesEncoding ProcessesEncoding Types and STMEvidence for Acoustic Encoding in STMConrad (1964)Shulman (1970)Shulman (1970) ResultsPosner & Keele (1967)Posner & Keele (1967) ResultsEncoding Types & LTMSemantic Encoding in LTMVisual Encoding in LTMAcoustic Encoding in LTMTransfer from STM to LTMPrinciples to Strengthen MemoryWhy Does Distributed Practice Work?Prospective MemoryRetrieval ProcessesRetrieval from STMStudying Searching in STMSternberg (1967)Slide 30Sternberg’s ConclusionIf You Do Not Retrieve from LTM…Evidence Supporting “Still There” Theory Nelson (1971)Nelson (1971) Critical ManipulationWhat Contributes to Forgetting?Retroactive Interference from LTMProactive Interference from LTMYour Cheatin’ HeartSlide 39Slide 40Flashbulb MemoriesSlide 42Slide 43Emotion and MemoryFlashbulb Memory ResultsEncoding SpecificitySlide 47State Dependent LearningSlide 49Slide 50State Dependent learning, why is it important?Owens, Bower and Black (1979)Owens, Bower and Black (1979) ResultsThe 7 Sins of Memory Daniel SchacterSeven Sins of MemoryTransienceWhat accounts for Transience?How to mitigate transienceSlide 59Absent MindednessWhy does it occurHow to counteractSlide 63Pop Quiz! Name that wordBlockingSlide 66MisattributionSlide 68Eyewitness testimonySlide 70Slide 71Slide 72Slide 73Slide 74SchemataReproductive vs. ReconstructiveReconstructive MemorySlide 78PersistenceVices or Virtues?Slide 81Mnemonic StrategiesChunkingMethod of LociPeg Word MnemonicChunkingGrouping elements into “chunks”Chase and Ericcson’s subjectsChunked digits into running timesRemembered up to 82 digits!Not as effective as more elaborative strategiesMethod of LociBased upon visual imagery Imagine a grocery list (eggs, milk, cheese, bread, butter)Imaging items placed in a common sceneTo recall, mentally stroll through sceneBizarreness / distinctivenessPeg Word MnemonicUses prememorized list (e.g., rhyme)One is a bun ==>Two is a shoe ==>Three is a tree ==>Four is a door ==>AcronymsCreate “word” from beginning lettersCreate a limerick from beginning lettersOOOTTAFAGVAH – 12 Cranial nervesWhy Do Mnemonics Devices Work?Provide structure for learningProvide durable trace (less interference)Provide retrieval structureWhich Mnemonic is the Best?Roediger (1980)Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval ProcessesAnderson & Pichert (1978)Participants read a story about the activities of two boys at home either from the point of view of a burglar or a homebuyerLater the participants were asked to remember as much as possible about the story they readThe point of view affected what participants recalledHomebuyers were more likely to remember that the basement was mustyBurglars were more likely to remember the coin collection and color TVTo Understand Memory ProcessesNeed to understand encoding processes, retrieval processes, and how they function together for short term storage (STM) and long term storage (LTM)Encoding ProcessesCreating an acoustic codeWhat it sounds likeCreating a semantic codeWhat it meansCreating a visual codeWhat it looks likeEncoding Types and STMType of code may rely on type of task STM refers to memory that needs to be held temporarilyEvidence exists for a variety of encoding types for STMEvidence for Acoustic Encoding in STMConrad (1964)Visually present a series of lettersAsk participants to write the order letters are presentedWhat types of errors are made?Conrad (1964)Found evidence for the use of an acoustic code in STM Participants made acoustic errorsF for S, B for V, P for BNot visual errors E for F, O for Q, R for PParticipants encoded items acoustically even though stimuli were presented visuallyShulman (1970)Evidence for semantic encoding in STMParticipants viewed 10-word listsGiven a recognition test using visually represented "probe words" which were either: Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball" Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak" Identical to the original wordShulman (1970) ResultsThe Homonym and Synonym probes produced similar error rates - this suggests that an equal amount of acoustic and semantic processing must be taking placeHomonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball" Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak" Identical to the original wordPosner & Keele (1967)Evidence for visual encoding in STMLetter matching taskTwo letters separated by brief intervalParticipant had to indicate if same letterA-a YesA-A YesA-M NoMeasure reaction timePosner & Keele (1967) ResultsIf letters were the same visually (a-a) participants were faster than if the letters were not the same visually (A-a)Results indicate that visual code was also present for STMEncoding Types & LTMType of code may rely on type of task LTM refers to memory that may be held permanently Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types for LTMSemantic Encoding in LTMGrossman & Eagle (1970)Study 41 different wordsGiven recognition test after delay9 of the distractors were semantically related to words on list9 of the distractors were not False alarms for each type: 1.83 of synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelatedVisual Encoding in LTMFrost (1972)Participants studied 16 drawingsManipulated visual orientation and semantic categoryAfter a delay, participants were asked if they had studied an object with the same name as the test object Reaction time was measuredParticipants responded faster to identical drawings than drawings in a different orientationThis result indicates visual encoding occurredAcoustic Encoding in LTMEvidence of very long-term memory for songs Rubin (1977) Participants recall more of the text when provided with the melody of a well-learned song ("Star Spangled Banner") than when given no cueTransfer from STM to LTMConsolidationIntegrating new information into stored informationDisruption of consolidation is studied in amnesiacsECT patients (Squire)Principles to Strengthen MemoryElaborative rehearsal is better than maintenance rehearsalDistributed practice is better than massed practice Spacing effectOrganizing information to enhance memoryWhy