Protocols• precise rules that govern communication between two parties• TCP/IP: the basic Internet protocols• IP: Internet protocol (bottom level)– all packets shipped from network to network as IP packets– no guarantees on quality of service or reliability: "best effort"– each physical network has its own format for carrying IP packets• TCP: transmission control protocol– creates a reliable 2-way data stream using IPerrors are detected and corrected– most things we think of as "Internet" use TCP• "application-level" protocols, mostly built from TCP– HTTP (web), SMTP (mail), SSH (secure login), FTP (file transfer), …• UDP: user datagram protocol– simple unreliable datagram protocol (errors not detected)– used in DNS, remote file systems, ...Packets• packet: a sequence of bytes carrying information– usually over a network connection• bytes have a specific sequence, format, organization– usually as specified in a protocol• typical network packet includes– source (where it comes from)– destination (where it goes to)– size or length information (how big is the data part)– miscellaneous information (type, version, info to detect errors, ...)– the data itself ("payload")• typical sizes range from– a few bytes– 150-1500 (Ethernet packets)– 100-65000 (IP packets)What's in an IP packet• a "header" that contains– protocol version, type of packet, length of header, length of data– fragmentation info in case it was broken into pieces– time to live: maximum number of hops before packet is discardedeach gateway decreases this by 1– source & destination addresses (32 bits for IPv4, 128 bits for IPv6)– checksum of header informationredundant info to detect errors in header information only, not data itself– etc.; about 20-40 bytes in header• actual data– up to 64 KB of payload–IPv4:version typehdrlentotallenfrag TTLsource addressdestaddresschk data…IP: Internet Protocol• IP provides an unreliable connectionless packet delivery service– every packet has full source & destination addresses– every packet is independent of all others• IP packets are datagrams– individually addressed packages, like postcards in the postal system"connectionless"– stateless: no memory from one packet to nexteach packet is independent of others, even if in sequence and going same place– unreliable: packets can be lost or duplicated ("best effort" delivery)– packets can be delivered out of order– contents can be wrong (though error rates are usually very low)– no speed control: packets can arrive too fast to be processed– limited size: long messages have to be split up and then reassembled• higher level protocols use IP packets to carry information• IP packets are carried on a wide variety of physical mediaTCP: Transmission Control Protocol• a reliable 2-way byte stream built with IP• a TCP connection is established to a specific host– and a specific "port" at that host• each port provides a specific service– SSH = 22, SMTP = 25, HTTP = 80, ...• a message is broken into 1 or more packets• each TCP packet has a header (src, dest, etc) + data– header includes checksum for error detection, and sequence number to preserve order and detect missing or duplicated packets• each TCP packet is wrapped in an IP packet and sent– has to be positively acknowledged to ensure that it arrived safelyotherwise, re-send it after a time interval• TCP is the basis of most higher-level protocolsHigher level protocols• SSH: secure login• SMTP: mail transfer• HTTP: hypertext transfer -> Web• protocol layering:– a single protocol can't do everything– higher-level protocols build elaborate operations out of simpler ones– each layer uses only the services of the one directly below– and provides the services expected by the layer above– all communication is between peer levels: layer N destination receives exactly the object sent by layer N sourceconnectionless packet delivery servicereliable transport serviceapplicationphysical layerEncapsulation• each piece of data at one level is wrapped up with a headerand sent as a packet at the next lower level• lowest level is what moves across specific networkdatadatadatadatadataHTTPTCPIPetherHow are things connected?• local nets connected to local Internet Service Provider (ISP)• these in turn connect to regional ISPs• and then to larger ones like UUNet, AT&T, Sprint, …• traffic exchanged at Internet exchanges– large and small, formal and informal, profit and non-profit• bandwidth (bit-carrying capacity) of connections is usually higher the larger the ISP– phone line analog modem 56 Kbps (you to your ISP)– cable modem, DSL 500 Kbps - 3MBps (you to your ISP)– telephone lines 1.5-45 Mbps (local ISP, big company to ISP)– optical fiber 155 Mbps and up (large carriers)gatewayAOLrouter or gatewayanother local area networkhomecomputerphone line, cable modem, ADSLTypical home connectionCoping with bandwidth limits• data flows no faster than the slowest link• limits to how much data can pass per unit time– no guarantees about packet delivery– no bandwidth, delay or quality of service guaranteesIP telephony is hard because voice traffic requires limited delay, jittervideo is somewhat easier but needs a lot more bandwidth• caching– save previous data so it doesn't have to be retrieved again• compression, encoding – to improve use of available bandwidth – don't send redundant or unnecessary informationtext, code, etc., can be compressed and recreated exactlymusic, pictures, movies are compressed with some information discarded• home connectivity– telephone modem 56 Kbps–ADSL, cable modem 1-4 Mbps– wireless 1-50 Mbps– fiber 50 Mbps?Internet Ideas• packets versus circuits– different models (mail vs phone)• names and addresses– what is it called, how to find it• routing– how to get from here to there• protocols and standards– Internet works because of IP as common mechanismhigher level protocols all use IPspecific hardware technologies carry IP packets• layering– divide system into layerseach of which provides services to next higher levelwhile calling on service of next lower level– a way to organize and control complexity, hide detailsInternet technical issues:• privacy & security are hard– data passes through shared unregulated dispersed media and sitesscattered over the whole