I. IntroductionA. Learning: a lasting change in behavior or mental processes as the result of an experience■ While behavior can be observed, mental processes are much more difficult to studyB. Instincts vs. Learning■ Instincts are unlearned behaviors due to evolutionary programming. For ie, geese migrating.■ Learning is an advance over instinctive behavior. Learning enables humans to acquire new knowledge that can be transferred from one generation to another.II. Classical ConditioningA. Ivan Pavlov: Russian psychologist who researched the digestive system of dogs.■ While conducting experiments, Pavlov noticed that his dogs salivated before food was actually delivered to their mouth.■ Five Components of Classical Conditioning1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) -- a natural stimulus that causes a response without the need for prior training. For ie, the food.2. Unconditioned Response (UCR) -- an unlearned response that was caused by an UCS. For ie, salivation3. Neutral Stimulus (NS) -- Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. For ie, a ringing bell.4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -- It was originally the NS. When paired with the UCS, the NS becomes a CS as it gains the power to cause a response. For ie, the ringing bell.5. Conditioned Response (CR) -- A learned response caused by the CS.■ Pavlov called the process by which a CS causes a CR “acquisition”.■ In Pavlov’s experiment, he paired the bell with food. Originally a Ns, the bell became as CS when the dog reacted with a CR by salivating. The dog thus formed a new, learned association between a ringing bell and the food.■ In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog’s salivation was both an UCR and a CR.B. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery■ Extinction is the gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the CS is not followed by the UCS.■ Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.■ Spontaneous recovery shows how difficult it can be to eliminate a CR.C. Stimulus Generalization & Discrimination■ Stimulus Generalization -- occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.■ Stimulus Discrimination -- the ability to distinguish between two similar stimuliD. Higher-Order Conditioning■ When a CS from one learning trial is paired with a new UCS.E. Taste Aversion & Classical Conditioning■ Taste aversion is a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food. for example John Garcia’s rat experiment with saccharin flavored waterF. His Experiment Challenged Two Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning:■ That conditioning only required a single pairing■ Instead of being separated by a few seconds, Garcia separated the 2 stimuli by several hours III. Operant ConditioningA. Limitations of Classical Conditioning■ It focuses on existing reflexive behaviors that are automatically caused by a specific stimulus■ Learning, however, involves new behaviors or voluntary actions that classical conditioning can’t explain.B. Edward Thorndike and the Law of Effect■ He used chicks and cats on the first systematic investigations of animal learning■ He postulated that responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, or unlikely to be repeated if responses are followed by unpleasant conditionsC. B.F Skinner and Operant Conditioning■ He believed psychologists should focus on observable behaviors that could be measured.■ Operant Conditioning is learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response.IV. Operant ConditioningA. Reinforcements: occur when a stimulus follows an active behavior or response■ The reinforcer increase the probability that the behavior or response will be repeatedB. Positive Reinforcement: when a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. The stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur againC. Negative Reinforcement: a situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an adverse stimulus. This usually enables you to escape or avoid an aversive stimulus.D. Premack Principle: states that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity. For ie, using a video game as a reward for studying for a test.E. Types of Reinforcers■ Primary: A reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing for a given species, for ie food, h2O, shelter■ Secondary: A reinforcer that gains its effectiveness by a learned association with primary reinforcer, for ie, money■ Token economy: where an individual is rewarded with tokens that act as secondary reinforcers, for ie, homework and bathroom passes.F. Continuous Reinforcement and Shaping■ Continuous Reinforcement: where all responses are reinforced■ Shaping: strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayedG. Intermittent Reinforcement: the rewarding of some, but not all, correct answers.■ Advantages: The most efficient way to maintain behaviors that have already been learned. These learned behaviors are very resistant to extinction, for ie, gambling.■ Do not confuse punishment and reinforcement. Punishment decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.V. Operant ConditioningA. Punishment is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated■ Don’t confuse punishment with reinforcement. Punishment decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.■ Punishment should occur immediately after a behavior.B. Drawbacks of Punishments:■ It can produce undesirable results such as fear, hostility, and aggression.■ It often produces only a temporary change in behavior.■ It can produce a behavior pattern called learned helplessness. This leads to a passive feeling of hopelessness that may lead to depression.C. Effectiveness Uses of Punishment■ It should be delivered immediately after the offensive behavior.■ It should be certain.■ It should be limited so it “fits the crime”.■ It should focus on the behavior, not the character of the offender.VI. Cognitive ProcessesA. The behaviorists believe that classical and operant conditioning