1Week 2. Clauses and Treesand c-commandCAS LX 522Syntax IPreviously, in LX 522…• Sentences have structure, and are made up ofconstituents.• The constituents are phrases.• A phrase consists of a head and modifiers.• The categorial type of the head determines thecategorial type of the phrase (e.g., a phrase headedby a noun is a noun phrase).• There are several categories, we looked at some ofthem and determined phrase structure rules ortemplates for what each kind of phrase cancontain.Previously, in LX 522…• We looked at NP, VP, PP, AdvP, and AdjP.– NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)– PP: P (NP)– VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)– AdjP: (AdvP) Adj– AdvP: (AdvP) AdvTrees and constituency• A sentence has a hierarchical structure• Constituents can have constituents of their own.• The simplest way to draw this is with a tree.ontheNPPNPPDtableTrees• The tree diagram is the most importantanalytical notation we will work with, andwe will use a lot of trees through thesemester, so it is important to be able tounderstand and draw trees.Drawing trees• Suppose the task is to draw the treestructure of a simple sentence.– The student put the book on the table.2Step 1: Identify categoriesThe first step is to identify the category of eachof the words in the sentence.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPStep 2: Locate modificationThe second step is to figure out the modificationrelations between words. What modifieswhat?Here, we have several thes and each modifiesthe noun to its right.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPStep 3: Apply rulesThe third step is to apply our rules,remembering the Golden Rule of Modifiers:Modifiers are always attached within thephrase they modify.So we look at the things being modified, andconsult the rule for things of that category.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPStep 3: Apply rulesWe have several N’s being modified.So we consult our rule about NPs:– NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)Starting at the right edge, we see that the tablecan form an NP.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPStep 3: Apply rulesSo, we draw an NP above the table.Now, consider on. It is a P, and there is onlyone kind of phrase which can contain a P:– PP: P NPCan we build a PP with what we have?The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPStep 3: Apply rulesSure, we can draw in a PP for on the table.Next, look at book. It is an N and the only rulewe have that contains an N is NP:– NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)Can we build an NP?The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPP3Step 3: Apply rulesHere, we have two choices.– NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)An NP may but need not contain a PP. We haveD N PP at our disposal. We could put them allin an NP, or we could leave the PP out of theNP.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPStep 3: Apply rulesOnly one choice is the right choice. How do weknow which one it is?Answer: The Golden Rule of Modifiers.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesIn The student put the book on the table, doeson the table modify book? If so, it needs to bein the NP headed by book.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesCompare this sentence toThe student saw the book on the tableWhat is the difference them with respect to onthe table?The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNP?Step 3: Apply rulesOn the table in our sentence modifies put (itspecifies the goal location of the putting); itdoes not modify book, and so it should not beincluded in the same NP as book (it should bein the same phrase as put).The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNPStep 3: Apply rulesOnly one of our phrase structure rules has a V,the VP rule, so we can build a VP.– VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)We just determined that on the table modifiesthe verb, so the VP must contain the NP andthe PP following the V.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNP4Step 3: Apply rulesThe last step we can do with the rules we haveso far is to build the NP over the student.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNPVPStep 3: Apply rulesUsing the idea that the sentence has an NP and aVP (which we will soon add to our rules), wecan complete the tree.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNPVPNPStep 3: Apply rulesAnd that’s our tree for The student put the bookon the table.The student put the book on the tableDN VD DNNPNPPPNPVPNPSThe S node• At the end of our tree, we had to posit a rulewhich we hadn’t yet formalized:– S: NP VP• This is a good first approximation, but thereare a couple of problems with thisformulationThe S node• The first problem is that it is not completeas it stands. Consider:– The students will eat the sandwiches.• We have an NP the students, which is thesubject of the sentence.• We have an NP the sandwiches and a VPeat the sandwiches.• But what is will?The S node• There are a number of things which can go in thisposition. One group of these are called modals:–Pat could leave.–Pat should leave.–Pat might leave.–Pat will leave.–Pat would leave.• Modals appear between the subject NP (Pat) andthe VP (leave). So, we need to allow for this in ourS rule.5The S node• S: NP (Modal) VP• We also need to allow for the not innegative sentences like:– Pat might not leave.– Pat should not leave.• So, we now have– S: NP (Modal) (Neg) VPDo-support– Pat left.– Pat did not leave.– *Pat not left.• When you negate a sentence like this inEnglish, you need to use do.• Do looks like it is in the same place thatmodals are.• When you use do like this, do gets markedfor tense, not the verb.Do-support• In fact, when you have something in the“Modal” slot, the verb never shows pasttense marking.– Pat left.– Pat will (not) leave.– Pat did not leave.– Pat should not leave.• Hypothesis: The “modal” slot is where thetense marking (past, present, future) goes.Do-support• For this reason, we will call the “modal” slot “T”(for “tense”).–
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