Introduction to Syntax, LINGUIST 401March 3, 2005Tools for discovering structure: Constituency Tests1 MovementIf a group of words can undergo movement i.e. preposing, postposing, or fronting for questionformation, they constitute a phrase of some sort.11.1 PreposingConstituents can often be preposed. Non-constituents can never be preposed.Noun Phrase (NP) preposing:(1) a. I can’t stand your younger brother.b. [Your younger brother], I can’t stand [] (though your elder brother’s OK).c. * Your younger, I can’t stand [brother].d. * Younger brother, I can’t stand [ your].e. * Brother, I can’t stand [your younger].f. * Your, I can’t stand [younger brother].g. * Your brother, I can’t stand [younger ].Prepositional Phrase preposing:(2) a. Peter gave a book to your brother.b. [To your brother], Peter gave a book [] (but not to mine).c. * To your , Peter gave a book [brother].d. * To, Peter gave a book [your brother].e. [Your brother], Peter gave a book [to] (but not to mine).f. * Your, Peter gave a book [tobrother].g. * To brother, Peter gave a book [your ].Why is (2e) ok?Preposing of Adjective Phrases and Verb Phrases is more restricted but still possible.(3) a. Bill said that the new Almodovar was exciting and [very exciting], it was [AP].(Adjective Phrase)b. [Give in to blackmail], I never will [VP]. (Verb Phrase)c. Patrick said that he would win the prize, and [win the prize], he did [VP]. (VerbPhrase)(4) a. They said that Bill would read the book somewhere, and [read the book] he did in thelibrary.1Remember thatthe reverse is notalways true i.e. ifsomething cannot be moved around, it does not meanthat itis nota constituent. There could be independent reasons for why it cannot move around.b. They said that Bill would read the book in the library, and read the book in the libraryhe did.Tensed VPs (and VPs + modals) cannot be preposed.(5) a. John ate the apple.b. * [Ate the apple], John.c. Kelly must visit the doctor.d. * Must visit the doctor, Kelly.Adverbial phrases can be preposed much more freely.(6) a. She’s going to be leaving for Poughkeepsie [very shortly].b. [Very shortly], she’s going to be leaving for Poughkeepsie [AdvP].1.2 PostposingOnly constituents can be postposed. Typically this test is only applicable to NP objects.(7) a. He explained [all of the terrible problems that he had encountered] to her.b. He explained [NP] to her [all of the terrible problems that he had encountered].c. * He explained [NPall of ] to her the terrible problems that he had encountered.d. * He explained [NPall ] to her of the terrible problems that he had encountered.1.3 QuestionsIf it is possible to ask a question about a set of consecutive words in a sentence, they form aconstituent.(8) a. He gave a book to Michael hurriedly.b. Who gave a book to Michael hurriedly?c. Who did he give a book [PPto [NP]] hurriedly?d. How did he give a book to Michael [AdvP]?e. To whom did he give a book [PP] hurriedly?f. What did he give [NP] to Michael hurriedly?g. What did he do [VP]?2 AdverbsIf adverbs can be positioned inside a constituent, it is either an S or a VP, and not an NP or a PP.If S-adverbs such as certainly, obviously etc. can be positioned inside a constituent, it is an S. IfVP-adverbs such as completely can be positioned inside a constituent, it is a VP.(9) a. Possible positions for S-adverbs like certainly[S* The team * can * [VPrely on my support]VP*]Sb. Possible positions for VP-adverbs like completely[SThe team can * [VPrely * [PPon my support]PP*]VP]S23 Sentence fragmentsOnly phrasal constituents i.e. full phrases can serve as serve as sentence fragments (in an appro-priate context).(10) a. A: Where did he go?B1: Up the hillB2: *Up hillB3: He went up the hillb. A: Where are you going to?B1: To the cinemaB2: The cinemaB3: I am going to the cinemac. A: Who were you ringing up?B1: My sisterB2: *Up my sisterB3: I was ringing up my sister.Up my sister in (10c) is not a possible sentence fragment because up and my sister do not form aconstituent in ‘I was ringing up my sister’. This is in contrast with ‘I am going to the cinema’where to and the cinema do form a constituent.4 Coordination4.1 Ordinary CoordinationOnly constituents can be coordinated.(11) a. He has [NPa cat] and [NPa dog].b. I met your [Nmother] and [Nfather].c. Is she [PPin the kitchen] or [PPin the bathroom]?d. He speaks [AdvPvery slowly] but [AdvPvery articulately].e. [SWynona likes Maui] and [SKelly likes Cancun].f. * John rang up his mother and up his sister.Only identical constituents can be coordinated.(12) a. John wrote to Mary and to Fred. (= PP and PP)b. John wrote a letter and a postcard. (= NP and NP)c. * John wrote to Mary and a letter. (= PP and NP)d. * John wrote a letter and to Fred. (= NP and PP)4.2 Shared Constituent CoordinationAnother kind of coordination is exemplified below.(13) a. John walked, and Bill ran, [up the hill].b. Tamara denied, but Fred admitted, [complicity in the crime].3c. Kelly must, and Jason may, [go to the party].The italicized sequence in the sentences in (13) is shared between the two conjuncts. Only con-stituents can be shared.(14) *Martha rang and Paul picked up Martin’s sister.Two features of Shared Constituent Coordination:(15) a. Non-shared parts are intonationally marked.b. Shared constituent appears to the right of the non-shared material.5 EllipsisUnder certain discourse conditions, it is possible to omit certain parts of a sentence. This phe-nomenon is known as Ellipsis.(16) A: Jay won’t wash the dishes.B: I bet he will (wash the dishes) if you’re nice to him.(the bracketed words need not be pronounced)Typically, in English, only VPs can undergo Ellipsis (i.e. be omitted)(17) a. Vivian won’t put soda water into scotch, but her brother will put soda water intoscotch.b. * Vivian won’t put soda water into scotch, but her brother will put soda water into(scotch).c. * Vivian won’t put soda water into scotch, but her brother will put soda water (intoscotch).d. * Vivian won’t put soda water into scotch, buther brotherwill put (soda water into scotch).e. Vivian won’t put soda water into scotch, but her brother will (put soda water into scotch).6 ReplaceabilityIf a sequence of words can be replaced by another sequence of words which you know forms aconstituent, then the original sequence also forms a constituent.So suppose you know that eat the appleis a Verb Phrase, then you canshow that drink scotch is alsoa verb phrase by a simple replacement