Power: Interpersonal, Organizational, and Global Dimensions Monday, 26 September 2005 TOPIC: Conformity and Influence, then introduction of three forms of power: Manipulation, Persuasion and Force. Chart from last class: Conformity Compliance level of influence peers hierarchy nature of response imitation homogenous performance follow directives/instructions potential for variation expectation implicit explicit, orders/commands explanation of subject claim it was voluntary may vary with different reasons involuntary no choice under authority Milgram experiment (illustrated in the film): Subject is placed with two others who are required to shock a participant. But the shock can only be as high as the lowest level recommended from any one of the three supposedly conducting the experiment on the fourth person. But the existence of the two confederate others creates a normative framework for the (true experimental) subject. – There is a dispersion of responsibility among the three. – When one of the two others leaves, it shows that defiance is possible, so now the subject is less likely to shock. Disobedience is not only possible but it goes unpunished. – For the experimenter (director of the project), failure to enact/enforce compliance over all in the group weakens power over the individual. From this we learn how strong group pressures can counteract authority! Consider civil disobedience and vigilantes, for example. Can authority make us conform? When a legitimate authority supports a given action, the subject will go along, especially if responsibility is dispersed. This shows how the situational structure can be manipulated in order to make submission more likely. – If you locate an individual from the surrounding organization, or culture, this lessons the strain on him/her, and are less submissive. Janis talks about groupthink in his article. The policy makers are isolated in their committees and only have limited input among themselves and their immediate peers – they make decisions they otherwise wouldn't, had they not been isolated. 09/26/05, page 1 of 7This genre of research included studies on racism in the American south, as well as concerns about the extent of obedience in Nazi Germany. Scholars wanted to know under what conditions people go along with what they might individually think is wrong. Kelman argued that there are variations in degrees of conformity. We should not think of obedience and conformity as absolute differences but as locations on a continuum. He suggested several intermediate stages. Conformity ←–––––––→ Obedience Think of it as a continuum! *Compliance/obedience is based on the expectation of reward or punishment and also depends on the capacity for surveillance. Consider the stop-smoking' group example: a group member promises not to smoke, but as soon as he steps outside (away from group), he lights up. He complies only in the group context, when is being observed by the others in the group. • identification – the desire to be accepted by the reference group – a feeling of belonging – lasts as long a the relationship continues and remains salient\ – e.g. the employee smokes with boss to gain approval • internalization – the group's agenda is accepted as legitimate because it is consonant with the individual's own values and this persists as long as the subject agrees with those values *Situational factors (e.g. time, affect, approval, values) make a difference in the degree of conformity. The extent to which an individual conforms depends on the relationship and the situation. Although the individualism of American culture often encourages us to think that a person's personality determines conformity, the experiments show how we can affect a person's behavior by changing the social variable - the organization of the situation. What qualifies as power? Intention with consequences. What about obedience? The experiments show how implicit norms rather than explicit commands and the structure of the situation can change people's behavior. The ability to use the knowledge of group pressure in order to control others can become a resource for the exercise of power And conformity can be used to control others and this results in our first type or form of power, manipulation. MANIPULATION Manipulation = concealed intention + getting someone to do something (consequence) Manipulation is a common form of power in social interaction. It occurs when there is a situation in which communication is altered in order to give a false impression of the actor's intention. Manipulation is extensive in interpersonal relations. For example – the movie Catch Me If You Can in which a man poses as various professions – people have expectations – since the protagonist wore the uniform and interacted 09/26/05, page 2 of 7convincingly, as if he belonged, people reacted as they felt they should, as if he were the real thing – The "con-man" – origin of the word is “confidence man” – the aim was to get people to trust [have confidence] in you and then use that confidence for your own profit. Manipulation is not limited to face-to-face interactions; it can occur without a close relationship. The subject may be unaware that he/she is the object of a power relationship. Symbolic communication is employed – veiled suggestions are used to constrain the subject's knowledge. Words/speech are used to misconvey the issue: – the Clear Skies Act will(purposively, ironically) raise atmospheric mercury levels – 51% of Americans think Saddam Hussein was behind the WTC bombings – which is false – but this is because Bush put Saddam's name next to “terror” in speeches, sending the symbolic message that the two went together – Manipulation can also be situational, when you alter the subject's environment: – market manipulation – refineries decrease oil capacity even though the flow is sufficient just so they can drive up the market price – Enron shut down the state power grid to drive California to desperation until the state agreed to contract for power at exorbitant prices *Manipulation can be either symbolic or situational. PERSUASION Persuasion is successful when the subject accepts the argument of the other as a basis of his/her own behavior. There is no reward, punishment, or inducement – persuasion is instead based solely on reason,