1Modeling the UniverseA SummaryQuestions to Consider1. What does the darkness of the night sky tell us about the nature of the universe?2. As the universe expands, what, if anything, is it expanding into?3. Where did the Big Bang take place?4. How do we know that the Big Bang was hot?5. What was the universe like during its first 380,000 years?6. What is “dark energy”? How does the curvature of the universe reveal its presence?7. Has the universe always expanded at the same rate?8. How reliable is our current understanding of the universe?The darkness of the night sky tells us aboutthe nature of the universe• The Cosmological Principle– Most cosmological theories are based on the idea that on large scales, the universe looks the same at all locations (this is known as homogeneity) and in every direction (this is known as isotropy)• Speak of an edge to the universe?• Speak of a center of the universe?The universe is expandingThe Hubble law describes the continuing expansion of space2The redshifts that we see from distant galaxies are caused by this expansion, not by the motions of galaxies through spaceThe redshift of a distant galaxy is a measure of the scale of the universe at the time the galaxy emitted its lightThe expanding universe emerged from a cataclysmic event called the Big Bang• The universe began as an infinitely dense cosmic singularity which began its expansion in the event called the Big Bang, which can be described as the beginning of time• During the first 10–43second after the Big Bang, the universe was too dense to be described by the known laws of physicsThe observable universe extends about 14 billion light-years in every direction from the EarthWe cannot see objects beyond this distance because the universe was opaque to radiation.The microwave radiation that fills all space isevidence of a hot Big Bang3The background radiation was hotter and more intense in the past• The cosmic microwave background radiation, corresponding to radiation from a blackbody at a temperature of nearly 3 K, is the greatly redshiftedremnant of the hot universe as it existed about 380,000 years after the Big Bang• During the first 380,000 years of the universe, radiation and matter formed an opaque plasma called the primordial fireballWhen the temperature of the radiation fell below 3000 K, protons and electrons could combine to form hydrogen atoms and the universe became transparentThe abundance of helium in the universe is explained by the high temperatures in its early historyThe shape of the universe indicates its matterand energy content• The curvature of the universe as a whole depends on how the combined average mass density ρ0compares to a critical density ρc4If ρ0is greater than ρc, the density parameter Ω0has a value greater than 1, the universe is closed, and space is spherical (with positive curvature)If ρ0is equal to ρc, the density parameter Ω0is equal to 1 and space is flat (with zero curvature)If ρ0is less than ρc, the density parameter Ω0has a value less than 1, the universe is open, and space is hyperbolic (with negative curvature)We can look for some evidence of curvature in the microwave background radiationObservations of temperature variations in the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is flat or nearly so, with a combined average mass density equal to the critical densityObservations of distant supernovae reveal that welive in an accelerating universe• Observations of galaxy clusters suggest that the average density of matter in the universe is about 0.27 of the critical density• The remaining contribution to the average density is called dark energy• Measurements of Type Ia supernovae in distant galaxies show that the expansion of the universe is speeding up• This may be due to the presence of dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant, which provides a pressure that pushes the universe outward5Note Well:UnconventionalAxes OrientationNote Well:UnconventionalAxes OrientationPrimordial “sound waves” (density waves) help reveal the character of the universe• Temperature variations in the cosmic background radiation are a record of sound waves in the early universe• Studying the character of these sound waves, and the polarization of the background radiation that they produce, helps constrain models of the universe6Jargon• average density of matter• Big Bang• closed universe• combined average mass density• compression• cosmic background radiation• cosmic microwave background• cosmic light horizon• cosmic singularity• cosmological constant• cosmological principle• cosmological redshift• cosmology• critical density• dark energy• dark energy density parameter• dark-energy-dominated universe• density parameter• era of recombination• flat space• homogeneous• hyperbolic space• isotropic• lookback time• mass density of radiation• matter density parameter• matter-dominated universe• negative curvature• observable universe• Olbers’s paradox• open universe• Planck time• plasma• positive curvature• primordial fireball• radiation-dominated universe• rarefaction• relativistic cosmology• spherical space• zero