Slide 1 Sociology 357 Class 3 Theory and Research Slide 2 I Three Main Elements of the Traditional Model of Science 1 Theory 2 Operationalization 3 Observation Slide 3 1 Theory Babbie defines a theory as a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life The key word here is explain Multiple competing theories for explaining the same phenomenon could co exist Slide 4 2 Operationalization Operationalization is the actual and concrete implementation of a theoretical measurement We will devote a class to this topic later this semester Slide 5 3 Observation Observation is a term used here to describe the process of gathering data gathering facts We could conduct a survey do field work run an experiment or analyze data from existing surveys Many surveys now available electronically Most of the time we do not literally observe except in the sense that we look at a computer screen Slide 6 II Hypotheses In social science we usually cannot direct test theories What we do is to test hypotheses derived from theories Hypotheses are expectations derived from theories using deductive logic Example Stress theory and school completion Slide 7 III Two Logical Systems 1 Deduction Deduction is a logical process by which one goes from the general to the particular 2 Induction Induction is the development of generalizations from many specific observations e g Darwin s theory of evolution Slide 8 III Two Logical Systems Continued 3 The Interaction between Deduction and Induction Most scientists however believe that both induction and deduction are important There is an intrinsic interaction between deduction and induction Slide 9 IV Terms Used in Theory Construction Reality law theory concepts variables statements and paradigms Slide 10 1 Reality We assume that there is a reality out there to be observed and discovered This is our philosophical conviction Slide 11 2 Law A law is a universal generalization about classes of facts Not widely used by most sociologists Some persistent patterns change over time Slide 12 3 Theory Unlike a law a theory can be hypothetical But a law is always true It is possible that a law does not have a good explanation and there may be multiple theories to explain a law Slide 13 4 Concepts Concepts are basic building blocks of theory They can be common or fancy terms But they need to be defined given precise meaning For example Race Sex easy Difficult ones happiness marital quality Slide 14 5 Variables Variables are operationalized versions of concepts For example Race on the Census selfidentification Example I Age at marriage as a function of educational attainment and race Example II Occupational success as a function of physical attractiveness Slide 15 6 Statements The laws axioms propositions and hypotheses that link the concepts which comprise theory Examples People seek to maximize their happiness Economic political and social power is concentrated in the hands of men Higher education is a time consuming endeavor Slide 16 7 Paradigms A paradigm provides implicit assumptions so that different individuals can communicate with a common understanding A paradigm provides a language for communication and a standard for problemsolving Paradigms also define boundaries of rational discourse Paradigms often referred to as theories Slide 17 V Example 1 Why Education is Positively Related to Earnings Human Capital Theory in economics More education more productivity higher pay Credentialism Theory based on Marxism More education membeship in select group higher pay Slide 18 V Example 1 Why Education is Positively Related to Earnings Both theories explain the same phenomenon The key hypothesis that differentiates the two theories is whether more education leads to higher levels of productivity If it does human capital theory is correct If it does not credentialism theory is correct Slide 19 VI Example II Why So Few Women in Science and Engineering Socialization Sex F vs M Math Ability Family Resp Discrimination Career in Science and Engineering
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