1 Surface Processes and Landforms (12.163/12.463) Fall 02 -- K. WhippleFACTORS INFLUENCING HYDRAULIC ROUGHNESS Bed material size (D50, D84, ks, zo, ng); Relative roughness (h/D50); Presence of sediment transport (momentum extraction); Bedforms and barforms; Vegetation; Obstructions (tree stumps, logs, boulders, bedrock outcrops, etc); Variations in channel width and depth; Channel curvature (sinuosity) METHODS FOR ESTIMATING ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS "Roughness" is represented in various ways in familiar flow velocity equations. We will consider: Chezy’s equation, Manning's equation, the Darcy-Weisbach equation, and a generalized D-W equation (all for average velocity), and the "Law of the Wall" equation for the velocity profile or a turbulent flow near a boundary (logarithmic). Variables Used: S : Water surface slope (= bed slope for steady uniform flow) [m/m] Rh : Hydraulic radius (Rh = A/P = flow depth for infinitely wide channel) [m] A : Cross-sectional area [m2] P : Wetted perimeter [m] Q : Water Discharge [m3/s] u : Cross-sectionally averaged velocity [m/s] z : cartesian coordinate (perpendicular to bed) [m] h : flow depth (perpendicular to bed) [m] τb : basal shear stress [Pa] k : von Karman’s constant = 0.40 C : Chezy roughness coefficient [m1/2/s] f : Darcy-Weisbach friction factor [ ] n : Manning’s roughness factor [s/m1/3] Cf : Generalized non-dimensional friction factor [ ] ks : grain roughness scale ~ D84 Chezy’s Equation: Q = u = C S R Ah without looking at the variable list above, work out the units of C. 1 3/8/20052 Surface Processes and Landforms (12.163/12.463) Fall 02 -- K. WhippleManning's Equation: (metric units!!) (1840’s; observed chezy’s C = function of depth) Q = u = 1 Rh 3 2 S2 1 An what are the units of n? Darcy-Weisbach Equation: (pipe flow & theory; f is non-dimensional) 28gRhS u = f Generalized Darcy_Weisbach: gRhS 2u = 12 ; τb =ρCfu (for Rh ~ h)Cf Law of the Wall: (for turbulent flow, applies strictly just near the boundary, z < .2h, but works fairly well for entire profile) u* z u = lnk zoτb where u* = ρ , “shear velocity” k = 0.40 (Von Karman's Constant) zo is the point where idealized velocity profile goes to zero (a fictional level in the flow) 2 3/8/20053 Surface Processes and Landforms (12.163/12.463) Fall 02 -- K. WhippleIntegrating over flow depth and dividing by h (for vertically averaged velocity): ⎞ 〈u〉=u* ⎜ ⎛ ln h −1⎟ k ⎝ zo ⎠ The 4/10s Rule: u* ⎛ h ⎞ u* .37h (〈u〉= ⎜ln + ln(.37) ⎟ = ln = uz = .37h)k ⎝ zo ⎠ k zo I. Visual Estimates of Manning's n: 1. Visual estimate of field conditions using experience, "type" photographs, and published tables. Tables are found in most geomorphology texts. "Type" photos are in Water Supply Paper 1849. Listed below are examples (from Richards): Description Manning's n Artificial channel, concrete .014 Excavated channel, earth .022 Excavated channel, gravel .025 Natural channel, < 30 m wide, clean, regular .030 Natural channel, < 30 m wide, some weeds, stones .035 Mountain stream, cobbles, boulders .050 Major stream, > 30 m wide, clean, regular .025 2. Estimate from Table given by Chow (1959), where n is given by: n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4) m5 Material, n0 Degree of Irregularity, n1 Variation of cross-section, n2 earth .020 smooth .000 gradual .000 rock .025 minor .005 alt. occasionally .005 fine gravel .024 moderate .010 alt. frequently .010-.015 coarse grav. .028 severe .020 Channel obstructions, n3 Vegetation n4 Degree of meandering, m5 negligible .000 low .005-.010 none 1.000 minor .010-.015 medium .010-.025 minor 1.000 appreciable .020-.030 high .025-.050 appreciable 1.150 severe .040-.060 v.high .050-.100 severe 1.300 3 3/8/20054 1 Surface Processes and Landforms (12.163/12.463) Fall 02 -- K. WhippleII. Empirical relationship between the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and grainsize and flow depth (Leopold et al., 1964). Empirical data fits the line: ⎛ h ⎞ = 2.0 log ⎜ ⎟ + 1.0 see figure, next page.f ⎝ D84 ⎠ D84 = 84th percentile value from cum. freq. distribution (grain diameter) III. Back-calculation of n or f from field data using velocity equations given above. u = 1 Rh 23 S12 n S = slope of the water surface Method: u (cross-sectional average), R, and S are measured, n and/or f is back-calculated. IV. Calculation of local hydrodynamic roughness ("grain roughness": zo) from velocity profiles using the Law of the Wall. u* z u = lnk zoτb where u* = ρ , k = 0.40 (Von Karman's Constant) First we must define hydraulically rough (HRF) vs. hydraulically smooth (HSF) flow. Given that ks = grain diameter, δν = thickness of the viscous sub-layer, and ν = kinematic viscosity, we define the shear Reynolds number (R*) as 4 3/8/20055Surface Processes and Landforms (12.163/12.463) Fall 02 -- K. Whippleu*ks R* = ν HSF occurs where R* < 3, and HRF where R* > 100, from Nikaradse's data. Case 1. HSF: ν zo = 9u* Case 2. HRF: zo = ks 30 ; ks ~ D84 (grain roughness) If 3 < R* < 100, then find zo form Nikaradse's diagram, see next page. Note, for typical river temperatures, ν = 1.514 x 10-2 cm2/s. 5