General instructionsLaboratory safetyPreparation of the laboratory notesPreparation of a written laboratory reportReporting magnitudes and unitsApproximate and exact valuesNumber of significant digitsRounding of numbersThe scientific notationUnitsError analysisDetermination of accuracyProbability distributionsApplication of error analysisTypes of errorsMean value and standard deviationThe law or error propagationOther error estimatesOutliersGraphsThe least squares methodThe linear least squares methodApplication of the linear least squares method on some ``non-linear'' functionsThe non-linear least squares methodComputer software for physical chemistryOperating system (Fedora Linux)Text processingLaTeXOpenOfficeSymbolic algebra (Maxima)Basic usageDownloading Maxima packages from the course web pageProducing scientific plots with xmgrace programWorking with data filesWorking with data setsCreating data sets within xmgraceGraph axes and titlesFitting data (linear regression)Fitting data (non-linear regression)TransformationsDrawing objects and special symbolsReferencesReferencesLaboratory instructions and safety(Dated: May 4, 2009)I. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS• Before starting a new lab, always read the laboratory notes for that experiment and discuss the exper iment withthe instructor.• Notes must be made during each labor atory exercise and a photoco py of the notes must be given to the instructor.This includes: name, date, the original results and the instrumental accuracies. Every student prepares her/hisown notes. For more information, see Sec. III.• Report to the instructor if you find equipment that is out of order or you break something.• After the measurements are done, return all the equipment, reagents and glassware to their original places.• Prepare the written laboratory report according to Sec. IV.Note that this PDF file contains hyperlinks that can be activated by clicking on the underlined link -word.II. LABORATORY SAFETYThe laboratory instructor will review the following safety rules and regulations with you and will point out the lo-cation and operation o f the fire extinguisher, safety shower, eye wash, and other laboratory safety equipment available.The safety rules:1. While in the laboratory, you must wear approved safety goggles. Hair and easily combustible clothing must beconfined at all times.2. Do not smoke, eat, or drink in the laboratory.3. Before beginning to work in the laboratory you should be familiar with the procedure you will be following, aswell as with any special precautions or changes that the instructor may note. Report any unexpected events tothe instructor.4. No unauthorized experiments may be perfo rmed. Violators will be subject to severe disciplinary action.5. Before leaving the laboratory wash your hands carefully.6. In case o f an accident, the laboratory instructor should be summoned. Furthermore:(a) If you receive a chemical burn, immediately flood the area with cold water while another student summonsthe instructor.(b) Treatment for injuries may be obtained from the Student Health Center.7. When conducting experiments:(a) When cutting glass tubing or inserting tubing into stoppe rs, protect your hands by using a towel. Glasstubing should be lubricated with glycerol or water to aid insertion of the tubing into stoppers. To removetubing fr om stoppers, cut the stoppers.(b) When heating or carrying out reactions in a test tube, never point the mouth of the tube at your neighboror yourself.(c) Never taste or smell a chemical unless instructed to do so.(d) When smelling a chemical, fan vapors toward your face and inhale cautiously.(e) Never pour water into concentrated acid; slowly add the acid to the water with constant stirring in a pyrexbeaker or flask, not in a gradua ted cylinder.(f) Never pipet liquids by mouth; use a suction bulb.Typeset by RE VTEX(g) If objectional vapors a re given off during an experiment, the experiment must be per formed in a hood.(h) Unless instructed otherwise, flammable solvents with boiling p oints less than 100oC must be heated,distilled, or evaporated on a steam bath, not over or near an open flame. Flammable solvents should becontained in fla sks rather than in open beakers.(i) Each student is responsible for cleaning up all spilled chemicals at his desk, on the reagent shelves, in thehoods, and around the balances. Cons ult the instructor if uncertain about the metho d of cleanup.(j) No chemicals should be disposed of in the sink unless instructed to do so. If chemicals are disposed in thesink, they should be washed down with ample water for several minutes. Materials such as broken glassand towels should be placed in the re c e pta c le s beneath the sinks or in a waste jar .(k) Never dispose of sodium or potassium metal in the sinks as they react vio le ntly with water. Consult theinstructor for the method of disposal.III. PREPARATION OF THE LABORATORY NOTESYour laboratory notebook is the primary record of your observations during the experiment. The central require-ments for a notebook are completeness and comprehensibility, not organization and polish. Make the notes in such away that others can read them too. Even though things may look obvious at the moment, they may not be so obviousafter few weeks! Include at least the following in your laborato ry notes:• Your name, the name of the expe riment and the date.• Your “prelab” preparations – calculations of concentrations, required glassware etc.• The equipment used and reagents (including their purities).• Include details about weighing of compounds, volumes of liquids, and the related err ors.• Results from the measurement. Remember to lab e l the numerical information you write down. In many cases,it is preferable to present results in tabular fo rm.• “Unexp e c ted” events – like switching to another buffer solution, drift in instrumental rea dings, etc.You will be as ked to provide a photocopy of your lab notes to the instructor and it will constitute to the overallgrading. If the experiment involve s computer data files, be sure to sto re your data on floppy diskettes or a USBmemory stick and make backups. Remember to document the file names in your notes so that you will be able toconnect the file names to the actual measurements later on.Note: If you loose your laboratory notes, you will not be able to write the laboratory report and you will have to dothe experiment again.IV. PREPARATION OF A WRITTEN