What Makes Second Language Learning So Difficult?Difficulties in Adult Second Language LearningSo, Why Learn Another Language?Slide 4Slide 5What factors make adult second language learning difficult?Current Knowledge Both Helps and HurtsConnecting Meanings to LabelsTwo Labels for the Same Meaning?Conceptual SalienceDistributed Feature Model De Groot (1992)Why Else Meanings May DifferPrepositions (Ijaz, 1986)Sources of Multiple TranslationsAmbiguity at Its Worst: “Trunk”Experiment 1PowerPoint PresentationSlide 18Slide 19Method of Experiment 1DesignStimuliPredictions for Experiment 1Data Analysis of Experiment 1Results of Experiment 1Accuracy Data: Experiment 1Tokowicz & Kroll Model of Language ProductionTokowicz & Kroll ModelSlide 30Slide 31Slide 32Slide 33Slide 34Slide 35Tokowicz & Kroll Model Multiple FormsSlide 37Slide 38Slide 39Slide 40Slide 41Slide 42Tokowicz & Kroll Model Multiple MeaningsSlide 44Slide 45Slide 46Slide 47Slide 48Interim SummaryExtensionsCompetition at Other Levels of Language ProductionExperiment 2: Grammaticality JudgmentGrammatically Acceptable StimuliGrammatically Unacceptable StimuliPredictions-Experiment 2Reaction Time Data-Experiment 2Accuracy Data-Experiment 2ConclusionsEvent-Related Brain PotentialsERP SetupERP ComponentsSlide 62Grammaticality Judgment-ERPSlide 64Slide 65Slide 66Slide 67Slide 68Slide 69Slide 70Slide 71Slide 72Slide 73Slide 74Slide 75Slide 76Slide 77Slide 78PredictionsAcceptability in EnglishAcceptability in SpanishSummaryFuture DirectionsAcknowledgmentsWhat Makes Second Language Learning So Difficult?Natasha TokowiczDifficulties in Adult Second Language Learning•A lot of information to learn •Embarrassment at speaking languageDifferences between the new language and your native language(e.g., The Competition Model, MacWhinney & Bates, 1989)So, Why Learn Another Language?So, Why Learn Another Language?QuickTime™ and a decompressorare needed to see this picture.So, Why Learn Another Language?•Communicate with people of different language backgrounds–Especially an important message!•Identify with another group•Learn about another culture•Learn more about your own languageWhat factors make adult second language learning difficult?•Exp. 1: Meaning differences across languages–Multiple translations-more than one way to say something•Exp. 2: Syntactic differences across languages–Grammatical constructions that differ•Experiment in progress–ERP techniquesCurrent Knowledge Both Helps and Hurts•Adult second language learners:–Full set of concepts–Full set of labels for these concepts–Full grammatical system–Full system for contrasting sounds•Sometimes these will transfer appropriately–E.g., same or similar labels (cognates): e.g., color-colorMismatches between languages create problemsConnecting Meanings to Labels•Initially, concepts are strongly connected to L1 words•Eventually concepts must get connected to L2 words for comprehension or productionTwo Labels for the Same Meaning?•Most models assume the concepts activated by the two languages are the same–Exception: Distributed Feature Model•Word concreteness–cat–health•Cognate status of translation pair–color-color–house-casaConceptual SalienceHighconceptual salienceLowconceptual salienceDistributed Feature ModelDe Groot (1992)L1lexical(word)levelconceptual(meaning)levellexical (word)levelconceptual(meaning)levelConcrete WordsCognate TranslationsL2L1: First LanguageL2: Second LanguageL1Abstract WordsNoncognate TranslationsL2Why Else Meanings May Differ•Different lexical concepts–“sibling” in Dutch = broers en zussen (brothers and sisters)•Culturally-specific concepts–“gezellig” in Dutch = ???•Culturally-distinct meanings–“sombrero”, “iglesia”Broadness of application of terms in the two languages--semantic boundariesPrepositions (Ijaz, 1986)Semantic boundaries differ across languages–German learners of English under-emphasize contact and over-emphasize movement for “on”•close translation equivalent of “on” in German is “auf”, which can denote a motional meaning like the English word “up”•Result is multiple translations, which are problematic for the L2 learnerSources of Multiple Translations•Imprecise correspondence across languages•Synonymy–sofá  sofa or couch•Ambiguity within a language–glass  vidrio or vaso in Spanish–to be  ser or estar in SpanishAmbiguity at Its Worst: “Trunk”“achterbak” or “kofferbak”“romp”“stam” or “boomstronk”“slurf”Experiment 1•What happens when meanings differ? •Different consequences depending on type of multiple translations–synonyms–multiple meanings•Translation Task+cat“gato”Method of Experiment 1•Participants: adult L2 learners–24 Dutch-English Speakers•Translated words aloud in both directions–L1 to L2–L2 to L1•Recorded responses–Accuracy–Reaction time for correct responsesDesign•Manipulated –Number and type of translations•Number of meanings•Number of forms for meaning selected –“Conceptual salience” (CS)•A composite measure of concreteness and context availabilityStimuli•Number of translations norms–Number of translations–Number of meanings translated•E.g., if said “slurf”, translated snout meaning•Semantic similarity ratings–How similar in meaning are these words?•All pairs were considered translation equivalents•Form similarity ratings–How similar are these words in spelling/sound?•All pairs were considered translation equivalentsPredictions for Experiment 1•High conceptual salience words faster than low conceptual salience words•Multiple forms slower than one form–Need to select one to say (e.g., vaso, vidrio)•Multiple meanings slower than one meaning–Need to select one to translate (e.g., trunk)Data Analysis of Experiment 1•Hierarchical regression analysis•Covaried effects of word length and frequency•Directionality taken into account–Data collapsed across directionResults of Experiment 1Low High800900100011001200One Meaning, One Form for Meaning SelectedTwo Meanings, One Form for Meaning SelectedOne Meaning, Two Forms for Meaning SelectedConceptual SalienceEstimated Translation Latency (ms)•Unambiguous words show CS effect•Cost for multiple forms similar for high and low CS words•Cost for multiple meanings only for high CS wordsAccuracy Data: Experiment 1•Unambiguous words