Chapter 2: Research MethodsPsychological ResearchWhy Research Designs?HeuristicsRepresentativeness HeuristicAvailability HeuristicCognitive BiasesNaturalistic ObservationCase Study DesignsQuestionnaires & SurveysSlide 11Components of a good measureReliabilityValidityReliability & ValidityStandardizationChapter 2:Chapter 2:Research MethodsResearch MethodsPsychological ResearchPsychological ResearchBasic ResearchBasic Research: examines how the mind works: examines how the mind worksApplied Research:Applied Research: examines how we can use basic examines how we can use basic research to solve real-world problemsresearch to solve real-world problemsApplications of Psychological ResearchApplications of Psychological ResearchWhy Research Designs?Why Research Designs?Research design matters.Research design matters.Jenny Storch StoryJenny Storch StoryPrefrontal lobotomyPrefrontal lobotomyWe can all be fooled.We can all be fooled.The same psychological processes that serve us The same psychological processes that serve us well in most situations also predispose us to errors well in most situations also predispose us to errors in thinking.in thinking.HeuristicsHeuristicsMental shortcut that helps us streamline our Mental shortcut that helps us streamline our thinking and make sense of our worldthinking and make sense of our worldCognitive MiserCognitive MiserOversimplificationOversimplificationTwo main types of heuristicsTwo main types of heuristics1.1.Representativeness HeuristicRepresentativeness Heuristic2.2.Availability heuristicAvailability heuristicRepresentativeness Representativeness HeuristicHeuristicHeuristic that involves judging the probability of Heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototypean event by its superficial similarity to a prototype““Like goes with like”Like goes with like”Base ratesBase ratesHow common a characteristic or behavior is in the How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general populationgeneral populationBase rate fallacyBase rate fallacyAvailability HeuristicAvailability HeuristicHeuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of Heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds.comes to our minds.How “available” it is in our memoriesHow “available” it is in our memoriesNumber of murdersNumber of murdersMurders per year in MichiganMurders per year in MichiganMurders per year in DetroitMurders per year in DetroitCognitive BiasesCognitive BiasesSystematic errors in thinking.Systematic errors in thinking.Hindsight biasHindsight biasTendency to overestimate how well we could have Tendency to overestimate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes.successfully forecasted known outcomes.OverconfidenceOverconfidenceTendency to overestimate our ability to make correct Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions.predictions.Bottom line of heuristics and biases: they can lead us Bottom line of heuristics and biases: they can lead us to draw false conclusions and to become convinced of to draw false conclusions and to become convinced of them.them.Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic ObservationWatching behavior in real-world settings without Watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate people’s behavior.trying to manipulate people’s behavior.High in external validityHigh in external validityExtent to which we can generalize our findings to real-Extent to which we can generalize our findings to real-world settings.world settings.Low in internal validityLow in internal validityDoes not allow us to draw cause-and-effect Does not allow us to draw cause-and-effect conclusionsconclusionsCase Study DesignsCase Study DesignsExamines one person or a small number of people in Examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over a period of timedepth, often over a period of timeCase studies provide existence proofs—Case studies provide existence proofs—demonstrations that a given psychological demonstrations that a given psychological phenomenon can occurphenomenon can occurCase studies offer useful insights that researchers can Case studies offer useful insights that researchers can test later in a systematic waytest later in a systematic wayProblems:Problems:1.1.Don’t allow us to infer causation.Don’t allow us to infer causation.2.2.Typically anecdotalTypically anecdotalQuestionnaires & SurveysQuestionnaires & SurveysQuestionnaires are about personality traits, Questionnaires are about personality traits, mental illnesses, and interestsmental illnesses, and interestsSurveys are typically about people’s opinions and Surveys are typically about people’s opinions and attitudesattitudesNeed to employ random selectionNeed to employ random selectionEvery person in the population has an equal chance Every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate of being chosen to participateIssue of generalizing Issue of generalizingQuestionnaires & SurveysQuestionnaires & SurveysEasy to administerEasy to administerSelf-report measures of personality traits and Self-report measures of personality traits and behaviors often work reasonably wellbehaviors often work reasonably wellAssume participants have enough insight into Assume participants have enough insight into their own personality characteristics to report on their own personality characteristics to report on them accuratelythem accuratelyResponse setsResponse sets1.1.Positive Impression ManagementPositive Impression Management2.2.MalingeringMalingeringComponents of a good Components of a good measuremeasureTests should be evaluated on three criteria:Tests should be evaluated on three criteria:1.1.ReliabilityReliability2.2.ValidityValidity3.3.StandardizationStandardizationReliabilityReliabilityConsistency of resultsConsistency of resultsTest-retestTest-retest method methodTrait Stays SameTrait Stays SameTestTestTestTest==Time 1Time 1Time 2Time 2ValidityValidityMeasures what it is supposed to measureMeasures what it is supposed to measureAccurateAccurateTypes of validityTypes of validity1.1.Content validity: test contains questions from domain of
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