Psych 350 1st EditionExam # 3 Study GuideLecture 16 (October 11)I. Attitudesa. Cognitive Dissonance Theory- Discomfort that arises from insistency between two or more attitudes,or between attitudes and behavior- We’re motivated to resolve this by changing our attitude or behavior or cognitions- Can lead to irrational and/ or maladaptive behaviorb. Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) experiment- Subjects were in a horribly boring experiment- Group A received $20 Group B received $1 to lie another participant that it was enjoyable- Group C received no money, did not have to lie- Group A: “I hated the experiment, and I said I enjoyed it, but that’s ok because I got a lot of money”- No cognitive dissonance- Therefore, attitude change is not necessary- Group B: did something they hated, lied about enjoying it, with insufficient justification- Cognitive dissonance- Resolved through attitude change (it wasn’t that bad!”)- Contradicted the accepted belied that big rewards produce greater changeII. Social Influencea. Three types of social influence- Conformity: Tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms- Compliance: Changes in behavior based on direct requests from one person to another- Obedience: Changes in behavior based on direct orders from one person to anotherb. Sherif’s Autokinetic Study (1936)- Participants publicly giving answers to a vague task converged on a common answerc. Asch’s study (1951)- Subjects were seated with 5 to 7 confederates- Each person gave answers to a number of line judging tasks- On certain items, the confederates gave incorrect answers- 76% of the subjects agreed with the incorrect answer on at least on trial- Overall, the subjects agreed with these errors 37% of the time- In comparison, subjects working alone made errors only 5% of the timeLecture 17 (October 14)I. Culture and Social Loafing a) Research has found social loafing to be less prevalent among women than men, and less prevalent in collectivist cultures II. Group Performance – type of task a) Additive Tasks: Group performance is the sum of individual efforts - EX: pushing a truck - Social loafing will occur, but overall group performance is better than a single individual’s performance b) Conjunctive Tasks: Performance is determined by the poorest performing member of the group - Overall group performance is typically worse than an individual’s performance - EX: people falling during dance routines etc.c) Disjunctive Tasks: Group performance is determined by the skills of the most skilled member of the group - EX: solving a math problem as a group - Overall group performance is typically better than an individual’s performance d) Brainstorming Rules:- No criticism allowed- Freewheeling suggestions allowed; the wilder, the better - The more ideas, the better - Combinations of ideas and improvements of ideas are soughte) Brainstorming: Does it work? The average number of ideas per individual in a group of 5 is about half the average number of ideas generated by an individual alone  “Two heads are better than one” but “two heads together are worse than two heads alone” f) Reasons for the Inefficiency of Brainstorming  1. One person speaks at a time; others rehearse their ideas, wasting time that they could spend thinking of other ideas  2. Hearing everyone else’s ideas can distract you from thinking about your own ideas  3. Evaluation apprehension - Electronic brainstorming reduces these problems III. Group Polarization a) The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members Lecture 18 (October 16)I. Groupthink a) Excessive tendency to seek agreement among group members b) Interferes with good decision-making c) Challenger Disaster – 1986 (space shuttle blowing up) d) Irvin Janis  Group Cohesiveness  Isolation, Stress, Budgetary Factors e) Study Figure 8.5 in textbook II. Social Dilemmas a) Situations in which a self-interested choice by each individual creates the worst outcome for the group  EX: being arrested  Figure 8.8: The Prisoner’s Dilemma - Wanting to turn one of the prisoners against each other III. Resource Dilemmasa) Commons dilemma (“take-some dilemma”)b) Public Goods Dilemma Individuals expected to contribute to a common pool IV. Deindividuationa) Vancouver Riot, Halloween b) The loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior  Occurs only in the presence of a group V. Individuation a) Highlighting the separateness of individuals reduces deviant behaviorLecture 19 (October 18)I. The Need to Belonga. A basic human motiveb. Those with a network of close social ties tend to be happier, healthier and more satisfied with life than those who are more isolatesII. Shynessa. Sources- Inborn personality trait- Learned reaction to failed interactions with othersb. Painful consequences- Negative self-evaluations- Expectations of failure in social encounters- Self-imposed isolationc. Treatment- Cognitive- behavioral therapyIII. Initial Attractiona. The importance of familiarity- Proximity (closeness) effect- The single best predictor of attraction- College students tend to date those who live either nearby or in the same type of housing as they dob. Proximity- Festinger’s housing study (1950)- Mere exposure effect The more often we are exposed to a stimulus, the morewe come to like that stimulus Exception: if you dislike something initially, exposure may make you dislike it even more Example: “social allergy effect”IV. The Major Role of Physical Attractivenessa. Hatfield’s (1966) Blind Date Study- Freshmen were randomly matched up for blind dates- Physical attractiveness was the only predictor of being asked for a second date- Intelligence, personality did not play a roleb. Plays a role early in life- Infants gaze longer at faces that are physically attractive- Physically attractive children get greater affection from parents, and are seen as more intelligent and better behaved by teachersc. Physical Attractiveness Stereotype- Tendency to associate physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities- Is it true?- Good-looking people do have more friends, better social skills- Not related to objective measures of intelligence or personality or health- Not related to happiness or high